Introduction to Non-destructive Testing

Course Daily Schedule

Day & Date

Session

Sunday
04, 12, 05

Session I
08 - 9.30
9.30 10.00
Session II
10.00 11.30
11.30 12.15
Session III
12.15 2.00
Session I
08 - 9.30
9.30 10.00
Session II
10.00 11.30
11.30 12.15
Session III
12.15 2.00
Session I
08 - 9.30
9.30 10.00
Session II
10.00 11.30
11.30 12.15
Session III
12.15 2.00
Session I
08 - 9.30
9.30 10.00
Session II
10.00 11.30
11.30 12.15
Session III
12.15 2.00
Session I
08 - 9.30
9.30 10.00
Session II
10.00 11.30
11.30 12.15
Session III
12.15 2.00

Monday
05, 12, 05

Tuesday
06, 12, 05

Wednesday
07, 12, 05

Thursday
08, 12, 05

Programmed
Introduction to NDT processes & their Uses
Tea break
Penetrant Testing Method, Theory.
Salah & Lunch break
Penetrant Testing Method, Practical
Identification of weld discontinuities
Tea break
Magnetic Particle Testing Theory
Salah & Lunch break
Magnetic Particle Testing Practical
Ultrasonic Testing Theory
Tea break
Ultrasonic Testing Theory continued
Salah & Lunch break
Ultrasonic Testing Practical.
Radiographic Testing Theory.
Tea break
Radiographic Testing Theory continued
Salah & Lunch break
Radiographic Interpretation, practical.
Eddy Current Testing Theory
Tea break
Comparison and Selection of NDT Methods.
Salah & Lunch break
Eddy Current Testing & other method
Practical
Valedictory Function.

Table of Contents
Chapter
No:

Name of the Chapter

Page
No

Course daily schedule

Course Contents

Introduction NDT processes & their Uses

3 - 11

Identification of weld Discontinuities

12 - 20

Penetrant Testing

21- 30

Magnetic Particle Testing

31 48

Ultrasonic Testing

49 -60

Radiographic Testing

61 - 77

Eddy Current Testing

78 - 80

10

Comparison and Selection of NDT Methods

81

Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Nondestructive Testing
The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad, that plays a critical
role in assuring that structural components and systems perform their function in
a reliable and cost effective fashion. NDT technicians and engineers define and
implement tests that locate and characterize material conditions and flaws that
might otherwise cause serious accidents such as, planes to crash, reactors to
fail, trains to derail, pipelines to burst, and a variety of troubling events.
These tests are performed in a manner that does not affect the future usefulness
of the object or material. In other words, NDT allows parts and materials to be
inspected and evaluated without damaging them. Because it allows inspection
without interfering with a product's final use, NDT provides an excellent balance
between quality control and cost-effectiveness.
Nondestructive Evaluation
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) is a term that is often used interchangeably
with NDT. However, technically, NDE is used to describe measurements that are
more quantitative in nature. For example, a NDE method would not only locate a
defect, but it would also be used to measure something about that defect such as
its size, shape, and orientation. NDE may be used to determine material
properties such as fracture toughness, ductility, conductivity and other physical
characteristics.
Uses of NDE

Flaw Detection and Evaluation

Leak Detection, Location Determination
Dimensional Measurements
Structure and Microstructure Characterization
Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination

Background on Nondestructive Testing (NDT)

Nondestructive testing has been practiced for many decades. One of the earliest
applications was the detection of surface cracks in railcar wheels and axles. The
parts were dipped in oil, then cleaned and dusted with a powder. When a crack
was present, the oil would seep from the defect and wet the oil providing visual
indication indicating that the component was flawed. This eventually led to oils
that were specifically formulated for performing these and other inspections and
these inspection techniques are now called penetrant testing.
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923) who
was a Professor at Wuerzburg University in Germany. Soon after his discovery,
Roentgen produced the first industrial radiograph when he imaged a set of
weights in a box to show his colleagues. Other electronic inspection techniques
such as ultrasonic and eddy current testing started with the initial rapid
developments in instrumentation spurred by technological advances and
subsequent defense and space efforts following World War II. In the early days,
the primary purpose was the detection of defects. Critical parts were produced
with a "safe life" design, and were intended to be defect free during their useful
life. The detection of defects was automatically a cause for removal of the
component from service.
The continued improvement of inspection technology, in particular the ability to
detect smaller and smaller flaws, led to more and more parts being rejected. At
this time the discipline of fracture mechanics emerged, which enabled one to
predict whether a crack of a given size would fail under a particular load if a
particular material property or fracture toughness, were known. Other laws were
developed to predict the rate of growth of cracks under cyclic loading (fatigue).
With the advent of these tools, it became possible to accept structures containing
defects if the sizes of those defects were known. This formed the basis for a new
design philosophy called "damage tolerant designs." Components having known
defects could continue to be used as long as it could be established that those
defects would not grow to a critical size that would result in catastrophic failure. A
new challenge was thus presented to the nondestructive testing community.
Mere detection of flaws was not enough. One needed to also obtain quantitative
information about flaw size to serve as an input to fracture mechanics
calculations to predict the remaining life of a component. These needs, led to the
creation of a number of research programs around the world and the emergence
of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) as a new discipline.

NDT/NDE Methods
The list of NDT methods that can be used to inspect components and make
measurements is large and continues to grow. Researchers continue to find new
ways of applying physics and other scientific disciplines to develop better NDT
methods. However, there are six NDT methods that are used most often. These
methods are Visual Inspection, Penetrant Testing, Magnetic Particle Testing,
Electromagnetic or Eddy Current Testing, Radiography, and Ultrasonic Testing.
Visual and Optical Testing (VT)
Visual inspection involves using an inspector's eyes to look for defects. The
inspector may also use special tools such as magnifying glasses, mirrors, or
borescopes to gain access and more closely inspect the subject area. Visual
examiners follow procedures that range fm simple to very complex.

Penetrant Testing (PT)

Test objects are coated with visible or fluorescent dye solution. Excess dye is
then removed from the surface, and a developer is applied. The developer acts
as blotter, drawing trapped penetrant out of imperfections open to the surface.
With visible dyes, vivid color contrasts between the penetrant and developer
make "bleedout" easy to see. With fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is used to
make the bleedout fluoresce brightly, thus allowing imperfections to be readily
seen.

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

This method is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic
material and then dusting the surface with iron particles (either dry or suspended
in liquid). Surface and near-surface imperfections distort the magnetic field and
concentrate iron particles near imperfections, previewing a visual indication of the
flaw.

Electromagnetic Testing (ET) or Eddy Current Testing

Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an induced
alternating magnetic field This electrical currents is called eddy currents because
they flow in circles at and just below the surface of the material. Interruptions in
the flow of eddy currents, caused by imperfections, dimensional changes, or
changes in the material's conductive and permeability properties, are detected.

Radiography (RT)
Radiography involves the use of penetrating gamma or X-radiation to examine
parts and products for imperfections. An X-ray generator or radioactive isotope is
used as a source of radiation. Radiation is directed through a part and onto film
or other imaging media. The resulting radiograph shows the dimensional features
of the part. Possible imperfections are indicated as density changes on the film in
the same manner as a medical X-ray shows broken bones.

Source

Rays

Object with defect

Film

X-ray film
Film with image

Defect Image

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Ultrasonics use transmission of high-frequency sound waves into a material to
detect imperfections or to locate changes in material properties. The most
commonly used ultrasonic testing technique is pulse echo, wherein sound is
introduced into a test object and reflections (echoes) are returned to a receiver
from internal imperfections or from the part's geometrical surfaces
.
Probe

Initial
pulse
Back surface
echo

Crack
echo

Couplant
Sound
waves

crack

1
0

Screen

Plate

Acoustic Emission Testing (AE)

When a solid material is stressed, imperfections within the material emit short
bursts of acoustic energy called "emissions." As in ultrasonic testing, acoustic
emissions can be detected by special receivers. Emission sources can be
evaluated through the study of their intensity, rate, and location.

Leak Testing (LT)

Several techniques are used to detect and locate leaks in pressure containment
parts, pressure vessels, and structures. Leaks can be detected by using
electronic listening devices, pressure gauge measurements, liquid and gas
penetrant techniques, and/or a simple soap-bubble test.

The Relative Uses and Merits of Various NDT Methods

Test
Method

UT

X-ray

Eddy
Current

MPI

LPT

Capital cost

Medium to
high

High

Low to
medium

Medium

Low

Consumable
cost

Very low

High

Low

Medium

Medium

Time of
results

Immediate

Delayed

Immediate

Short
delay

Short
delay

Effect of
geometry

Important

Important

Important

Not too
Important

Not too
Important

Access
problems

Important

Important

Important

Important

Important

Type of
defect

Internal

Most

External

External
Near
Surface

Surface
breaking

Relative
sensitivity

High

Medium

High

Low

Low

Operator
skill

High

High

Medium

Low

Low

Operator
training

Important

Important

Important

Important

Not
Important

Training
needs

High

High

Medium

Low

Low

Portability of High
equipment

Low

High to
medium

High to
medium

High

Thickness
gauging,
grade
sorting

Defects
only

Defects
only

Capabilities

Thickness
Thickness
gauging,
gauging
composition
testing

Table 1 - Reference Guide to Major Methods for the Nondestructive

Examination of Welds
9

Inspection
Method

Equipment
Required

Enables
Advantages
Detectiort of

Limitations Remarks

Visual

Magnifying
glass
Weld sizing
gauge
Pocket rule
Straight edge
Workmanship
standards

Surface flaws cracks,

porosity,
unfilled
craters, slag
inclusions
Warpage,
underwelding,
overwelding,
poorly formed
beads,
misalignments,
improper fitup

Low cost.
Can be applied
while work is
in process,
permitting
correction of
faults.
Gives
indication of
incorrect
procedures.

Applicable
to surface
defects only.
Provides no
permanent
record.

Should
always be the
primary
method of
inspection, no
matter what
other
techniques are
required.
Is the only
"productive"
type of
inspection.
Is the
necessary
function of
everyone who
in any way
contributes to
the making of
the weld.

Radiographic

Commercial
X-ray or
gamma units
made
especially for
inspecting
welds,
castings and
forgings.
Film and
processing
facilities.
Fluoroscopic
viewing
equipment.

Interior
macroscopic
flaws - cracks,
porosity, blow
holes,
nonmetallic
inclusions,
incomplete
root
penetration,
undercutting,
icicles, and
burnthrough.

When the
indications are
recorded on
film, gives a
permanent
record.
When viewed
on a
fluoroscopic
screen, a lowcost method of
internal
inspection

Requires
skill in
choosing
angles of
exposure,
operating
equipment,
and
interpreting
indications.
Requires
safety
precautions.
Not
generally
suitable for
fillet weld
inspection.

X-ray
inspection is
required by
many codes
and
specifications.
Useful in
qualification
of welders
and welding
processes.
Because of
cost, its use
should be
limited to
those areas
where other
methods will
not provide
the assurance
required.

Magnetic Special
Particle
commercial
equipment.

Excellent for
detecting
surface

Simpler to
Applicable to Elongated
use than
ferromagnetic defects parallel
radiographic materials only. to the magnetic
10

Magnetic
powders - dry
or wet form;
may be
fluorescent
for viewing
under
ultraviolet
light.

discontinuities
especially
surface cracks.

inspection.
Permits
controlled
sensitivity.
Relatively
low-cost
method.

Requires skill
in
interpretation
of indications
and
recognition of
irrelevant
patterns.
Difficult to use
on rough
surfaces.

field may not

give pattern;
for this reason
the field should
be applied
from two
directions at or
near right
angles to each
other.

Liquid
Commercial
Penetrant kits
containing
fluorescent or
dye penetrants
and
developers.
Application
equipment for
the developer.
A source of
ultraviolet
light - if
fluorescent
method is
used.

Surface cracks
not readily
visible to the
unaided eye.
Excellent for
locating leaks
in weldments.

Applicable to
magnetic and
nonmagnetic
materials.
Easy to use.
Low cost.

Only surface
defects are
detectable.
Cannot be
used
effectively on
hot assemblies.

In thin-walled
vessels will
reveal leaks not
ordinarily
located by
usual air tests.
irrelevant
surface
conditions
(smoke, slag)
may give
misleading
indications.

Ultrasonic Special
commercial
equipment,
either of the
pulse-echo or
transmission
type.
Standard
reference
patterns for
interpretation
of RF or
video
patterns.

Surface and
subsurface
flaws including
those too small
to be detected
by other
methods.
Especially for
detecting
subsurface
lamination-like
defects.

Very
sensitive.
Permits
probing of
joints
inaccessible
to
radiography.

Requires high
degree of skill
in interpreting
pulse-echo
patterns.
Permanent
record is not
readily
obtained.

Pulse-echo
equipment is
highly
developed for
weld inspection
purposes.
The
transmissiontype equipment
simplifies
pattern
interpretation
where it is
applicable.

11

Chapter II

IDENTIFICATION OF WELD DISCONTINUITIES

Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These
interruptions may occur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones.
Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the codes or specification
used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as defects.
General Welding Discontinuities
The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.
Cracks:
Crack is tight linear separations of metal that can be very short to very long
indications. Cracks are grouped as hot or cold cracks. Hot cracks usually occur
as the metal solidifies at elevated temperatures. Cold cracks occur after the
metal has cooled to ambient temperatures ( delayed cracks).
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a
direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam.
Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can
sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.

Lack of Fusion:
Lack of fusion (Cold Lap) is a condition where the weld filler metal does not
properly fuse with the base metal or the previous weld pass material (inter pass
12

cold lap). The arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the
slightly molten puddle to flow into base material without bonding.

Porosity:
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take
many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots
or specks appearing singularly, in clusters or rows. Sometimes porosity is
elongated and may have the appearance of having a tail This is the result of gas
attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called
13

wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material it will have a radiographic
density more than the surrounding area.

Cluster porosity:
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with
moisture. The moisture turns into gases when heated and becomes trapped in
the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular
porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close
together.

Slag inclusions:
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or
between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical
shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag
inclusions.

14

Incomplete penetration (IP):

Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld
metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld
discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a
crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with welldefined, straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the
weldment.

Root concavity:
Root or Internal concavity or suck back is condition where the weld metal has
contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a
radiograph it looks similar to lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges
and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image.

15

Internal or root undercut:

Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the
weld. In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the
centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP
because it does not follow a ground edge.

External or crown undercut:

External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of
the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside
edge of the weld area.

16

Offset or mismatch:
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being
welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image is a noticeable
difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused
by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by failure
of the weld metal to fuse with the land area.

Inadequate weld reinforcement:

Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld
metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to
determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the
image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be more (darker) than the
image density of the surrounding base material.

17

Excess weld reinforcement :

Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in
excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on
a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily
determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the
engineering requirements.

Discontinuities in TIG welds

The following discontinuities are peculiar to the TIG welding process. These
discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process including aluminum
and stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous
weld which when radiographed is easily interpreted.
Tungsten inclusions.
Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in
tungsten inert gas ( TIG ) welding. If improper welding procedures are used,
tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is denser
18

than aluminum or steel; therefore, it shows as a lighter area with a distinct outline
on the radiograph.

Oxide inclusions:
Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded
(especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding
materials and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the
radiograph.

Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)

The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.
Whiskers:
Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom
surface of the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as
light, "wire like" indications.
Burn-Through:
Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to
penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld creating a
thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are
referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn through appears as dark spots,
which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).

19

Chapter III

PENETRANT INSPECTION
Introduction
Liquid penetration inspection is a method that is used to reveal surface breaking
flaws by bleedout of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw. The technique is
based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface breaking flaw by
capillary action. After a period of time called the "dwell," excess surface
penetrant is removed and a developer is applied. This acts as a "blotter." It draws
the penetrant from the flaw to reveal its presence.
Colored (contrast) penetrants require good white light while fluorescent
penetrants need to be viwed in darkened conditions with an ultraviolet "black
light".
20

A very early surface inspection technique involved the rubbing of carbon black on
glazed pottery, whereby the carbon black would settle in surface cracks
rendering them visible. Later it became the practice in railway workshops to
examine iron and steel components by the "oil and whiting" method. In this
method, heavy oil commonly available in railway workshops was diluted with
kerosene in large tanks so that locomotive parts such as wheels could be
submerged. After removal and careful cleaning, the surface was then coated with
a fine suspension of chalk in alcohol so that a white surface layer was formed
once the alcohol had evaporated. The object was then vibrated and stroked with
a hammer, causing the residual oil in any surface cracks to seep out and stain
the white coating.
This method was in use from the latter part of the 19th century through to
approximately 1940, when the magnetic particle method was introduced and
found to be more sensitive for the ferromagnetic iron and steels. Penetrant
Inspection Improves the Detect ability of Flaws
The advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) offers over an unaided
visual inspection is that it makes defects easier to see for the inspector. There
are basically two ways that a penetrant inspection process makes flaws more
easily seen. First, LPI produces a flaw indication that is much larger and easier
for the eye to detect than the flaw itself. Many flaws are so small or narrow that
they are undetectable by the unaided eye.
The second way that LPI improves the detectability of a flaw is that it produces a
flaw indication with a high level of contrast between the indication and the
background which also helps to make the indication more easily seen. When a

visible dye penetrant inspection is performed, the penetrant materials are

formulated using a bright red dye that provides for a high level of contrast
between the white developer that serves as a background as well as to pull the
trapped penetrant from the flaw. When a fluorescent penetrant inspection is
performed, the penetrant materials are formulated to glow brightly and to give off
light at a wavelength that the eye is most sensitive to under dim lighting
conditions.
Basic Processing
Liquid Penetrant

Steps of a
Inspection

21

1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant

inspection is the surface preparation. The surface must be free of oil,
grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent penetrant from
entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if mechanical
operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting have been
performed. These and other mechanical operations can smear the surface
of the sample, thus closing the defects.
2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and
dried, the penetrant material is applied on the surface by spraying,
brushing, or immersing the parts in a penetrant bath.
3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time
to allow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a
defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in
contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended by the

penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The

times vary depending on the application, penetrant materials used, the
material being inspected, and the type of defect being inspected. Minimum
dwell times typically range from 5 to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no
harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not
allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often determined by
experimentation and is often very specific to a particular application.
4- Excess Penetrant Removal: This is a most delicate part of the inspection
procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed from the
surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as possible from
defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may involve
cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treated with an
emulsifier and then rinsing with water .
5- Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the
sample to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will
be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that may be applied by
dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet developers).
22

6- Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the part

surface for a period of time sufficient to permit the extraction of the
trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development time is
usually a minimum of 10 minutes and significantly longer times may be
necessary for tight cracks.
7- Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to
detect indications from any flaws that may be present.
8- Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the
part surface to remove the developer from the parts that were found to be
acceptable.
Penetrant Testing Materials
The penetrant materials used today are much more sophisticated than the
kerosene and whiting first used by railroad inspectors near the turn of the 20th
century. Today's penetrants are carefully formulated to produce the level of
sensitivity desired by the inspector.
1- Penetrant: Penetrant materials are classified in the various industry and
government specifications by their physical characteristics and their performance
Penetrant materials come in two basic types. These types are listed below:
Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants
Type 2 - Visible Penetrants
Fluorescent penetrants contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when
exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Visible penetrants contain a red dye that
provides high contrast against the white developer background. Fluorescent
penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems because
the eye is drawn to the glow of the fluorescing indication. However, visible
penetrants do not require a darkened area and an ultraviolet light in order to
make an inspection. Visible penetrants are also less vulnerable to contamination
from things such as cleaning fluid that can significantly reduce the strength of a
fluorescent indication.
Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess
penetrant from the part. The four methods are listed below:

Method A - Water Washable

Method B - Post Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
Method C - Solvent Removable
Method D - Post Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic

Water washable (Method A) penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing
with water alone. These penetrants contain some emulsifying agent (detergent)
that makes it possible to wash the penetrant from the part surface with water
alone. Water washable penetrants are sometimes referred to as self-emulsifying
systems.
23

Post emulsifiable penetrants come in two varieties, lipophilic and hydrophilic. In

post emulsifiers, lipophilic systems (Method B), the penetrant is oil soluble and
interacts with the oil-based emulsifier to make removal possible. Post
emulsifiable, hydrophilic systems (Method D), use an emulsifier that is a water
soluble detergent which lifts the excess penetrant from the surface of the part
with a water wash. Solvent removable penetrants require the use of a solvent to
remove the penetrant from the part.
Properties of good Penetrant
To perform well, a penetrant must possess following important characteristics.

spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide
complete and even coverage.
be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action.
remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part.
remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the
drying and developing steps.
be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications.
must not be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.

2- Emulsifiers: When removal of the penetrant from the defect due to overwashing of the part is a concern, a post emulsifiable penetrant system can be
used. Post emulsifiable penetrants require a separate emulsifier to break the
penetrant down and make it water washable. Most penetrant inspection
specifications classify penetrant systems into four methods of excess penetrant
removal. These are listed below:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Method A: Water-Washable
Method B: Post Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
Method C: Solvent Removable
Method D: Post Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic

Method C relies on a solvent cleaner to remove the penetrant from the part being
inspected. Method A has emulsifiers built into the penetrant liquid that makes it
possible to remove the excess penetrant with a simple water wash. Method B
and D penetrants require an additional processing step where a separate
emulsification agent is applied to make the excess penetrant more removable
with a water wash. Lipophilic emulsification systems are oil-based materials that
are supplied in ready-to-use form. Hydrophilic systems are water-based and
supplied as a concentrate that must be diluted with water prior to use .Lipophilic
24

emulsifiers (Method B) were introduced in the late 1950's and work with both a
chemical and mechanical action. After the emulsifier has coated the surface of
the object, mechanical action starts to remove some of the excess penetrant as
the mixture drains from the part. During the emulsification time, the emulsifier
diffuses into the remaining penetrant and the resulting mixture is easily removed
with a water spray.
Hydrophilic emulsifiers (Method D) also remove the excess penetrant with
mechanical and chemical action but the action is different because no diffusion
takes place. Hydrophilic emulsifiers are basically detergents that contain solvents
and surfactants. The hydrophilic emulsifier breaks up the penetrant into small
quantities and prevents these pieces from recombining or reattaching to the
surface of the part. The mechanical action of the rinse water removes the
displaced penetrant from the part and causes fresh remover to contact and lift
newly exposed penetrant from the surface.
The hydrophilic post emulsifiable method (Method D) was introduced in the mid
1970's and since it is more sensitive than the lipophilic post emulsifiable method
it has made the later method virtually obsolete. The major advantage of
hydrophilic emulsifiers is that they are less sensitive to variation in the contact
and removal time. While emulsification time should be controlled as closely as
possible, a variation of one minute or more in the contact time will have little
effect on flaw detectability when a hydrophilic emulsifier is used. However, a
variation of as little as 15 to 30 seconds can have a significant effect when a
lipophilic system is used.

3- Developers
The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of defects
and to spread the developer out on the surface of the part so it can be seen by
an inspector. The fine developer particles both reflect and refract the incident
ultraviolet light, allowing more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more
efficient fluorescence. The developer also allows more light to be emitted through
the same mechanism. This is why indications are brighter than the penetrant
itself under UV light. Another function that some developers performs is to create
a white background so there is a greater degree of contrast between the
indication and the surrounding background.
Developer Forms
The AMS 2644 and Mil-I-25135 classify developers into six standard forms.
These forms are listed below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Form a - Dry Powder

Form b - Water Soluble
Form c - Water Suspendible
Form d - Nonaqueous Type 1 Fluorescent (Solvent Based)
Form e - Nonaqueous Type 2 Visible Dye (Solvent Based)

25

The developer classifications are based on the method that the developer is
applied. The developer can be applied as a dry powder, or dissolved or
suspended in a liquid carrier. Each of the developer forms has advantages and
disadvantages.
A)- Dry Powder
Dry powder developer is generally considered to be the least sensitive but it is
inexpensive to use and easy to apply. Dry developers are white, fluffy powders
that can be applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number of ways. The
developer can be applied by dipping parts in a container of developer, or by
using a puffer to dust parts with the developer. Parts can also be placed in a dust
cabinet where the developer is blown around and allowed to settle on the part.
Electrostatic powder spray guns are also available to apply the developer. The
goal is to allow the developer to come in contact with the whole inspection area.
Unless the part is electrostatically charged, the powder will only adhere to areas
where trapped penetrant has wet the surface of the part. The penetrant will try to
wet the surface of the penetrant particle and fill the voids between the particles,
which brings more penetrant to the surface of the part where it can be seen.
Since dry powder developers only stick to the part where penetrant is present,
the dry developer does not provide a uniform white background as the other
forms of developers do. Having a uniform light background is very important for a
visible inspection to be effective and since dry developers do not provide one,
they are seldom used for visible inspections. When a dry developer is used,
indications tend to stay bright and sharp since the penetrant has a limited amount
of room to spread.
B) - Water Soluble
As the name implies, water soluble developers consist of a group of chemicals
that are dissolved in water and form a developer layer when the water is
evaporated away. The best method for applying water soluble developers is by
spraying it on the part. The part can be wet or dry. Dipping, pouring, or brushing
the solution on to the surface is sometimes used but these methods are less
desirable. Aqueous developers contain wetting agents that cause the solution to
function much like dilute hydrophilic emulsifier and can lead to additional removal
of entrapped penetrant. Drying is achieved by placing the wet but well drained
part in a recalculating warm air dryer with the temperature held between 70 and
75F. If the parts are not dried quickly, the indications will will be blurred and
indistinct. Properly developed parts will have an even, pale white coating over the
entire surface.
C) - Water Suspendible
Water suspendible developers consist of insoluble developer particles
suspended in water. Water suspendible developers require frequent stirring or
agitation to keep the particles from settling out of suspension. Water suspendible
developers are applied to parts in the same manner as water soluble developers.
Parts coated with a water suspendible developer must be forced dried just as
parts coated with a water soluble developer are forced dried. The surface of a
26

part coated with a water suspendible developer will have a slightly translucent
white coating.
B) - Nonaqueous
Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile solvent and are
typically applied with a spray gun. Nonaqueous developers are commonly
distributed in aerosol spray cans for portability. The solvent tends to pull
penetrant from the indications by solvent action. Since the solvent is highly
volatile, forced drying is not required. A nonaqueous developer should be applied
to a thoroughly dried part to form a slightly translucent white coating.
Preparation of Part
One of the most critical steps in the penetrant inspection process is preparing the
part for inspection. All coatings, such as paints, varnishes, plating, and heavy
oxides must be removed to ensure that defects are open the surface of the part.
If the parts have been machined, sanded, or blasted prior to the penetrant
inspection, it is possible that a thin layer of metal may have smeared across the
surface and closed off defects. It is even possible for metal smearing to occur as
a result of cleaning operations such as grit or vapor blasting. This layer of metal
smearing must be removed before inspection.

Contaminants
Coatings, such as paint, are much more elastic than metal and will not fracture
even though a large defect may be present just below the coating. The part must
be thoroughly cleaned as surface contaminates can prevent the penetrant from
entering a defect. Surface contaminants can also lead to a higher level of
background noise since the excess penetrant may be more difficult to remove.
Common coatings and contaminates that must be removed include: paint, dirt,
flux, scale, varnish, oil, etchant, smut, plating, grease, oxide, wax, decals,
machining fluid, rust, and residue from previous penetrant inspections.
Some of these contaminants would obviously prevent penetrant from entering
defects and it is, therefore, clear that they must be removed. However, the
impact of other contaminants such as the residue from previous penetrant
inspections is less clear, but they can have a disastrous affect on the inspection.
Take the link below to review some of the research that has been done to
evaluate the effects of contaminants on LPI sensitivity.
A good cleaning procedure will remove all contamination from the part and not
leave any residue that may interfere with the inspection process. It has been
found that some alkaline cleaners can be detrimental to the penetrant inspection
27

process if they have silicates in concentrations above 0.5 percent. Sodium

metasilicate, sodium silicate, and related compounds can adhere to the surface
of parts and form a coating that prevents penetrant entry into cracks.
Researchers in Russia have also found that some domestic soaps and
commercial detergents can clog flaw cavities and reduce the wettability of the
metal surface, thus, reducing the sensitivity of the penetrant. Conrad and Caudill
found that media from plastic media blasting was partially responsible for loss of
LPI indication strength. Microphotographs of cracks after plastic media blasting
showed media entrapment in addition to metal smearing.
It is very important that the material being inspected has not been smeared
across its own surface during machining or cleaning operations. It is well
recognized that machining, honing, lapping, hand sanding, hand scraping, shot
peening, grit blasting, tumble deburring, and peening operations can cause a
small amount of the material to smear on the surface of some materials. It is
perhaps less recognized that some cleaning operations, such as steam cleaning,
can also cause metal smearing in the softer materials. Take the link below to
learn more about metal smearing and its affects on LPI.

Common Uses of Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the most widely used nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors,
which are its relative ease of use and its flexibility. LPI can be used to inspect
almost any material provided that its surface is not extremely rough or porous.
Materials that are commonly inspected using LPI include the following:

Metals (aluminum, copper, steel, titanium, etc.)

Glass
Many ceramic materials
Rubber
Plastics

LPI offers flexibility in performing inspections because it can be applied in a large

variety of applications ranging from automotive spark plugs to critical aircraft
components. Penetrant material can be applied with a spray can or a cotton
swab to inspect for flaws known to occur in a specific area or it can be applied by
dipping or spraying to quickly inspect large areas. At right, visible dye penetrant
being locally applied to a highly loaded connecting point to check for fatigue
cracking.
28

Penetrant inspection systems have been developed to inspect some very large
components. In this picture, DC-10 banjo fittings are being moved into a
penetrant inspection system at what used to be the Douglas Aircraft Company's
Long Beach, California facility. These large machined aluminum forgings are
used to support the number 3 engine in the tail of a DC-10 aircraft.
Liquid penetrant inspection is used to inspect of flaws that break the surface of
the sample. Some of these flaws are listed below:

Fatigue cracks
Quench cracks
Grinding cracks
Overload and impact fractures
Porosity
Laps
Seams
Pin holes in welds
Lack of fusion or braising along the edge of the bond line

As mentioned above, one of the major limitations of a penetrant inspection is that

flaws must be open to the surface.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Penetrant Testing

Like all nondestructive inspection methods, liquid penetrant inspection has both
advantages and disadvantages. The primary advantages and disadvantages
when compared to other NDE methods are summarized below.
Primary Advantages
The method has high sensitive to small surface discontinuities.
The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic,
magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials
may be inspected.
Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly
and at low cost.
Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute
a visual representation of the flaw.
Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
Primary Disadvantages

Only surface breaking defects can be detected.

Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be inspected.
Precleaning is critical as contaminants can mask defects.
29

Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must
be removed prior to LPI.
The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
Chemical handling and proper disposal is require

Chapter IV

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Introduction:
Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive testing method used for surface
and near surface defect detection. MPI is a fast and relatively easy to apply and
surface preparation is not as critical as it is for some other NDT methods. These
characteristics make MPI one of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing
methods.
MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to
detect flaws in components. The only requirement is that the component being
inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel, cobalt, or
some of their alloys.
30

Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will
allow the inspection to be effective.
The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms such as castings,
forgings, and weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle
inspection for determining a component's fitness-for-use. Some examples of
industries that use magnetic particle inspection are the structural steel,
automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries.
Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection may
be used to test items such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.
Basic Principles
In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept.
Consider a bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any
place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A
pole where a magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole and a
pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.

When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar
magnets with magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet
is just cracked but not broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form
at each edge of the crack. The magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters
the at the south pole. The magnetic field spreads out when it encounter the small
air gap created by the crack because the air cannot support as much magnetic
field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the field spreads out, it appears to
leak out of the material and, thus, it is called a flux leakage field.

If iron particles are

sprinkled
on
a
cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and cluster not only at the poles
at the ends of the magnet but also at the poles at the edges of the crack. This
cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the
basis for magnetic particle inspection.
31

The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component

that is to be inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the
defects will create a leakage field. After the component has been magnetized,
iron particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of
the magnetized part. The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage
fields, thus forming a visible indication that the inspector can detect.

History of Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetism is the ability of matter to attract other matter. The ancient Greeks
were the first to discover this phenomenon in a mineral they named magnetite.
Later on Bergmann, Becquerel, and Faraday discovered that all matter including
liquids and gasses were affected by magnetism, but only a few responded to a
noticeable extent.
The earliest known magnetic inspection an object took place as early as 1868.
Cannon barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing the barrel then sliding a
magnetic compass along the barrel's length. These early inspectors were able to
locate flaws in the barrels by monitoring the needle of the compass.
In the early 1920s, William Hoke realized that magnetic particles could be used
with magnetism as a means of locating defects. Hoke discovered that a surface
or subsurface flaw in a magnetized material caused the magnetic field to distort
and extend beyond the part. This discovery was brought to his attention in the
machine shop. He noticed that the metallic grindings from hard steel parts, which
were being held by a magnetic chuck while being ground, formed patterns on the
face of the parts which corresponded to the cracks in the surface. Applying a fine
ferromagnetic powder to the parts caused a build up of powder over flaws and
formed a visible indication.
Today, the MPI inspection method is used extensively to check for flaws in a
large variety of manufactured materials and components. MPI is used to check
materials such as steel bar stock for seams and other flaws prior to investing
32

machining time during the manufacturing of a component. Critical automotive

components are inspected for flaws after fabrication to ensure that defective
parts are not placed into service. MPI is used to inspect some highly loaded
components that have been in-service for a period of time. For example, many
components of high performance race cars are inspected whenever the engine,
drive train and other systems are overhauled. MPI is also used to evaluate the
integrity of structural welds on bridges, storage tanks, pipelines and other critical
structures.
Magnetism
Magnets are very common items in the workplace and household. Uses of
magnets range from holding pictures on the refrigerator to causing torque in
electric motors. The term "magnetic field" simply describes a volume of space
where there is a change in energy within that volume. This change in energy can
be detected and measured. The location where a magnetic field can be detected
exiting or entering a material is called a magnetic pole. Magnetic poles have
never been detected in isolation but always occur in pairs and, thus, the name
dipole.

A bar magnet can be considered a dipole with a north pole at one end and South
Pole at the other. A magnetic field can be measured leaving the dipole at the
North Pole and returning the magnet at the South Pole. If a magnet is cut in two,
two magnets or dipoles are created out of one. This sectioning and creation of
dipoles can continue to the atomic level. Therefore, the source of magnetism lies
in the basic building block of all matter...the atom.
The Source of Magnetism
All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons, neutrons
and electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the atom's nucleus and
the electrons are in constant motion around the nucleus. Electrons carry a
negative electrical charge and produce a magnetic field as they move through
space. A magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical charge is in motion.
The strength of this field is called the magnetic moment.
consider electric current flowing through a conductor. When the electrons
(electric current) are flowing through the conductor, a magnetic field forms
around the conductor. The magnetic field can be detected using a compass. The
magnetic field will place a force on the compass needle.
Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way by
a magnetic field. However, not all materials react the same way.
33

Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic Materials

In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Each electron in a pair spins in the
opposite direction. So when electrons are paired together, there opposite spins
cause their magnetic fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic field
exists. Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net
magnetic field and will react more to an external field. Most materials can be
classified as ferromagnetic, diamagnetic or paramagnetic.
Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative susceptibility to magnetic
fields. Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the
material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is
removed. Most elements in the periodic table, including copper, silver, and gold,
are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetic fields.
These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does
not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.

Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external

magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to
retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed. They
get their strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains. In
these domains, large numbers of atoms moments (1012 to 1015) are aligned
parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong. When a
ferromagnetic material is in the unmagnitized state, the domains are nearly
randomly organized and the net magnetic field for the part as a whole is zero.
When a magnetizing force is applied, the domains become aligned to produce a
strong magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of
ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic Domains
Ferromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties because the material is
made up of small regions known as magnetic domains. In each domain, all of the
atomic dipoles are coupled together in a preferential direction. This alignment
develops as the material develops its crystalline structure during solidification
from the molten state.
During solidification a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that
the magnetic force within the domain is strong in one direction. Even though the
domains are magnetically saturated, the bulk material may not show any signs of
magnetism because the domains develop themselves are randomly oriented
relative to each other.
34

Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within

the material are aligned. This can be done by placing the material in a strong
external magnetic field or by passing electrical current through the material.
Some or all of the domains can become aligned. The more domains are aligned,
the stronger the magnetic field in the material. When all of the domains are
aligned, the material is magnetically saturated and additional amount of external
magnetization force will not cause any increase in its internal level of
magnetization.

Unmagnetized Material

Magnetized Material

Magnetic Field Characteristics

Magnetic lines of force have a number of important properties, which include:

They seek the path of least resistance between opposite magnetic poles.
In a single bar magnet as shown to the right, they attempt to form closed
loop from pole to pole.
They never cross one another.
They all have the same strength.
Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an area
of higher permeability to an area of lower permeability.
Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles.
They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual
movement occurs. They flow from the south pole to the north pole within
the material and north pole to south pole in air.

Electromagnetic Fields

35

In most conductors, the magnetic field exists only as long as the current is
flowing

the direction of the magnetic field is dependent on the direction of the electrical
current in the wire. A three-dimensional representation of the magnetic field is
shown above. There is a simple rule for remembering the direction of the
magnetic field around a conductor. It is called the right-hand rule. If a person
grasps a conductor in ones right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of
the current, the fingers will circle the conductor in the direction of the magnetic
field.

Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil

When a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form
a coil, a magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil
along longitudinal axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil.
The magnetic field circling each loop of wire combines with the fields from the
other loops to produce a concentrated field down the center of the coil. A loosely
wound coil is illustrated below to show the interaction of the magnetic field. The
magnetic field is essentially uniform down the length of the coil when it is wound
tighter.

36

The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing current
but also with each loop that is added to the coil. A long straight coil of wire is
called a solenoid and can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field
similar to that of a bar magnet. The concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is
very useful in magnetizing ferromagnetic materials for inspection using the
magnetic particle testing method. Please be aware that the field outside the coil
is weak and is not suitable for magnetize ferromagnetic materials.

The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties

A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a
material by studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship
between the induced magnetic flux density B and the magnetizing force H. It is
often referred to as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown below.

37

Plotting the change in magnetic flux B induced a ferromagnetic material while the
magnetizing force H is changed generates the hysteresis loop. A ferromagnetic
material that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly
demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line
demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the
magnetic field in the component (B+). At point "a" almost all of the magnetic
domains are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will
produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has reached the point
of magnetic saturation.

When H is reduced back down to zero, the curve will move from point "a" to point
"b." At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material
even though the magnetizing force is zero, this is referred to as the point of
retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level of residual
magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but
some have lost there alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve

moves to point "c", where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the
point of coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped
enough of the domains so that the net flux within the material is zero.) The force
required to remove the residual magnetism from the material, is called the
coercive force or coercivity of the material.
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will
again become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d").
38

Reducing H to zero brings the curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual
magnetism equal to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the
positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the
origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual
magnetism. The curve will take a different path from point "f" back the saturation
point where it with complete the loop.
From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material
can be determined.
Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the
saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability
to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force
is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at point B on the
hysteresis curve.)
Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains
in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism
and retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the
saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the
retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.
Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to
a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at
point C on the hysteresis curve.)
Permeability - A property of a material that describes the ease with which a
magnetic flux is established in the component.
Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the
establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in
an electrical circuit.
The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal about the material being
magnetized. The hysteresis curves of two different materials are shown in the
graph.

Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability

To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to
understand that orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is
very important. There are two general types of magnetic fields that can be
established within a component.
39

A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of

force that run parallel to the long axis of the part.
Longitudinal magnetization of a component can be
accomplished using the longitudinal field set up by a
coil or solenoid. It can also be accomplished using
permanent or electromagnets.
A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force
that run circumferentially around the perimeter of a
part. A circular magnetic field is induced in an article
by either passing current through the component or by
passing current through a conductor surrounded by
the component.
To magnetize the part in two directions is important because the best detection of
defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established at right angles to
the longest dimension of the defect, if the magnetic field is parallel to the defect,
the field will see little disruption and no flux leakage field will be produced.

An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is

necessary to form an indication. Since defects may occur in various directions,
each part is normally magnetized in two directions at right angles to each other.
To determine most of the defects.

40

Demagnetization
After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to
demagnetize the component
Remanent magnetic fields can:

Affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.

Interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.
Create a condition known as "ark blow" in the welding process. Arc blow
may cause the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the
weld.
Cause abrasive particle to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase
wear.

Magnetizing Equipment for Magnetic Particle Inspection

To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to become
familiar with the different types of magnetic fields and the equipment used to
generate them. As discussed previously, one of the primary requirements for
detection of a defect in a ferromagnetic material is that the magnetic field induced
in the part must intercept the defect at a 45 to 90 degrees angle. Flaws that are
normal (90 degrees) to the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications
because they disrupt more of the magnet flux.
A variety of equipment exist to establish the magnetic field for MPI. Some
equipment is designed to be portable so that inspections can be made in the field
and some is designed to be stationary for ease of inspection in the laboratory or
manufacturing facility.

41

Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are sometimes used for magnetic particle inspection as the
source of magnetism. The two primary types of permanent magnets are bar
magnets and horseshoe (yoke) magnets. These industrial magnets are usually
very strong and may require significant strength to remove them from a piece of
metal. Some permanent magnets require over 50 pounds of force to remove
them from the surface. Because it is difficult to remove the magnets from the
component being inspected, and sometimes difficult and dangerous to place the
magnets, their use is not particularly popular. However, a diver for inspection in
an underwater environment or other areas sometimes uses permanent magnets,
such as in an explosive environment, where electromagnets cannot be used.
Permanent magnets can also be made small enough to fit into tight areas where
electromagnets might not fit

Electromagnets
Today, most of the equipment used to create the magnetic field used in MPI is
based on electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical current to produce the
magnetic field. An electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment
that is used to establish a magnetic field. It is basically made by wrapping an
electrical coil around a piece of soft ferromagnetic steel. A switch is included in
the electrical circuit so that the current and, therefore, also the magnetic field can
be turn on and off. They can be powered with alternating current from a wall
socket or by direct current from a battery pack. This type of magnet generates a

very strong magnetic field in a local area where the poles of magnet touch the
part to be inspected. Some yokes can lift weights in excess of 40 pounds.

42

Portable yoke with battery pack

Portable magnetic particle kit

Prods
Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface of the
component being inspected to make contact for passing electrical current
through the metal. The current passing between the prods creates a circular
magnetic field around the prods that is can be used in magnetic particle
inspection. Prods are typically made from copper and have an insulated handle
to help protect the operator. One of the prods has a trigger switch so that the
current can be quickly and easily turned on and off. Sometimes the the two prods
are connected by any insulator as shown in the image to facilitate one hand
operation. This is referred to as a dual prod and is commonly used for weld
inspections.
If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component
surface, electrical arcing can occur and cause damage to the component. For
this reason, the use of prods are not allowed when inspecting aerospace and
other critical components. To help to prevent arcing, the prod tips should be
inspected frequently to ensure that they are not oxidized, covered with scale or
other contaminant, or damaged.

43

Portable Coils and Conductive Cables

Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field
within a component. When a preformed coil is used, the component is placed
against the inside surface on the coil. Coils typically have three or five turns of a
copper cable within the molded frame. A foot switch is often used to energize the
coil. Conductive cables are wrapped around the component. The cable used is
typically 00 extra flexible or 0000 extra flexible. The number of wraps is
determined by the magnetizing force needed and, of course, the length of the
cable. Normally the wraps are kept as close together as possible. When using a
coil or cable wrapped into a coil, amperage is usually expressed in ampere-turns.
Ampere-turns is the amperage shown on the amp meter times the number of
turns in the coil.

Portable coil

Conductive Cable

central conductor.
44

This type of a setup is used to inspect parts that are hollow such as gears, tubes,
and other ring-shaped objects. A central conductor is an electrically conductive
bar that is usually made of copper or aluminum. The bar is inserted through the
center of the hollow part and the bar is then clamped between the contact pads.
When current is passed through the central conductor, a circular magnetic field
flows around the bar and enters into the part or parts being inspected.

Lights for Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection can be performed using particles that are highly
visible under white lighting conditions or particles that are highly visible under
ultraviolet lighting conditions. When an inspection is being performed using the
visible color contrast particles, no special lighting is required as long as the area
of inspection is well lit. A light intensity of at least 1000 lux (100 fc) is
recommended when a visible particles are used, but a variety of light sources
can be used.
When fluorescent particles are used, special ultraviolet light must be used.
Fluorescence is defined as the property of emitting radiation as a result of and
during exposure to radiation. Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle
inspections are coated with a material that produces light in the visible spectrum
when exposed to the near-ultraviolet light. This "particle glow" provides high
contrast indications on the component anywhere particles collect. Particles that
fluoresce yellow-green are most common because this color matches the peak
sensitivity of the human eye under dark conditions. However, particles that
fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and green colors are available.

Ultraviolet Light
45

Ultraviolet light or "black light" is light in the 1,000 to 4,000 Angstroms (100 to
400 nm) wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic
form of light that is invisible to the human eye. Wavelengths above 4,000
Angstroms fall into the visible light spectrum and are seen as the color violet. UV
is separated according to wavelength into three classes: A, B, and C. The shorter
the wavelength, the more energy that is carried in the light and the more
dangerous it is to the human cells.
Class
UV-A
UV-B
UV-C

Wavelength Range
3,2004,000 Angstroms
2,8003,200 Angstroms
2,8001,000 Angstroms

The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is between 3,500
and 3,800 Angstroms with a peak wavelength at about 3,650 A. This wavelength
range is used because it is in the UV-A range, which is the safest to work with.
UV-B will do an effective job of causing substances to fluoresce, however, it
should not be used because harmful effects such as skin burns, and eye damage
can occur. This wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created during the
welding process. UV-C (1,000 to 2,800) is even more dangerous to living cells
and is used to kill bacteria in industrial and medical settings.
The desired wavelength range for use in NDT is obtained by filtering the
ultraviolet light generated by the light bulb. The output of a UV bulb spans a wide
range of wavelengths. The short wave lengths of 3,120 A to 3,340 A are
produced in low levels. A peak wavelength of 3650 A is produced at a very high
intensity. Wavelengths in the visible violet range (4050 A to 4350 A), greenyellow (5460 A), yellow (6220 A) and orange (6770 A) are also usually produced.
The filter allows only radiation in the range of 3200 to 4000 angstroms and a little
visible dark purple to pass.
Magnetic Particles
As mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle
inspection are a key ingredient as they form the indications that alert the
inspector to defects. Particles start out as tiny milled (a machining process)
pieces of iron or iron oxide. A pigment (somewhat like paint) is bonded to their
surfaces to give the particles color. The metal used for the particles has high
magnetic permeability and low retentivity. High magnetic permeability is
important because it makes the particles attract easily to small magnetic leakage
fields from discontinuities, such as flaws. Low retentivity is important because the
particles themselves never become strongly magnetized so they do not stick to
each other or the surface of the part. Particles are available in a dry mix or a wet
solution.

Dry Magnetic Particles

46

Dry magnetic particles can typically be purchased in red, black, gray, yellow and
several other colors so that a high level of contrast between the particles and the
part being inspected can be achieved. The size of the magnetic particles is also
very important. Dry magnetic particle products are produced to include a range of
particle sizes. The fine particles are around 50 mm (0.002 inch) in size are about
three times smaller in diameter and more than 20 times lighter than the coarse
particles (150 mm or 0.006 inch), which make them more sensitive to the leakage
fields from very small discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot be
made exclusively of the fine particles. Coarser particles are needed to bridge
large discontinuities and to reduce the powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small
particles easily adhere to surface contamination, such as remanent dirt or
moisture, and get trapped in surface roughness features producing a high level of
background. It should also be recognized that finer particles will be more easily
blown away by the wind and, therefore, windy conditions can reduce the
sensitivity of an inspection. Also, reclaiming the dry particles is not recommended
because the small particle are less likely to be recaptured and the "once used"
mix will result in less sensitive inspections.

The particle shape is also important. Long, slender particles tend align
themselves along the lines of magnetic force. However, research has shown that
if dry powder consists only of long, slender particles, the application process
would be less than desirable. Elongated particles come from the dispenser in
clumps and lack the ability to flow freely and form the desired "cloud" of particles
floating on the component. Therefore, globular particles are added that are
shorter. The mix of globular and elongated particles result in a dry powder that
flows well and maintain good sensitivity. Most dry particle mixes have particle
with L/D ratios between one and two.

Wet Magnetic Particles

Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil.
The wet magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry
because the suspension provides the particles with more mobility and makes it
possible for smaller particles to be used since dust and adherence to surface
47

contamination is reduced or eliminated. The wet method also makes it easy to

apply the particles uniformly to a relatively large area.
Wet method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder products in a
number of ways. One way is that both visible and fluorescent particle are
available. Most nonfluorescent particles are ferromagnetic iron oxides, which are
either black or brown in color. Fluorescent particles are coated with pigments that
fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce green-yellow
are most common to take advantage of the peak color sensitivity of the eye but
other fluorescent colors are also available. (For more information on the color
sensitivity of the eye, see the penetrant inspection material.)

The particles used with the wet method are smaller in size than those used in the
dry method for the reasons mentioned above. The particles are typically 10 mm
(0.0004 inch) and smaller and the synthetic iron oxides have particle diameters
around 0.1 mm (0.000004 inch). This very small size is a result of the process
used to form the particles and is not particularly desirable, as the particles are
almost too fine to settle out of suspension. However, due to their slight residual
magnetism, the oxide particles are present mostly in clusters that settle out of
suspension much faster than the individual particles. This makes it possible to
see and measure the concentration of the particles for process control purposes.
Wet particles are also a mix of long slender and globular particles. The carrier
solutions can be water- or oil-based. Water-based carriers form quicker
indications, are generally less expensive, present little or no fire hazard, give off
no petrochemical fumes, and are easier to clean from the part. Water-based
solutions are usually formulated with a corrosion inhibitor to offer some corrosion
protection. However, oil-based carrier solutions offer superior corrosion and
hydrogen embrittlement protection to those materials that are prone to attack by
these mechanisms.

Chapter IV
48

Ultrasonic Testing
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct
examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for
flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements, material characterization,
and more.
The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form
of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part
of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave
signal is transformed into electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a
screen.

Probe

Initial
pulse

Crack
echo

Back surface
echo

Plate
0

4 SCREEN
6
8

Crack

10

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method for detecting
both surface and subsurface volumetric defects and is widely used in pipeline, oil
and gas and processing industry.

Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen

49

Sound Spectrum

Audible
range
Ultrasonic testing range

20 kHz

16Hz

256 Hz

200 kHz

15 MHz
1-5 MHz

70 kHz

Usual steel testing

range
Advantages of Ultrasonic Inspection
Some of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:

It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to
other NDT methods.
Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is
used.
It is high accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size and
shape.
Minimal part preparation required.
Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
It has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw
detection.

Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Inspection

50

As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which
include:

Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
It normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound
energy into test specimen.
Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin
or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to
low sound transmission and high signal noise.
Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and
characterization of flaws.

Properties of sound wave

Wave Propagation
Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in
materials, which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances are
comprised of atoms, which may be forced into vibrational motion about their
equilibrium positions.
In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on
the way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear
waves, surface waves, and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and
shear waves are the two modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic
testing. The particle movement responsible for the propagation of longitudinal
and shear waves is illustrated below.

Longitudinal waves:

51

In longitudinal waves the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction of the

direction of wave propagation. Since compressional forces are active in these
waves, they are also called compressional waves. Compression waves can be
generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the
atomic structure by a series of comparison and expansion (rarefaction)
movements.
Transverse or shear wave:
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or
transverse to the direction of propagation. Shear waves require an acoustically
solid material for effective propagation and, therefore, are not effectively
propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses. Shear waves are relatively
weak when compared to longitudinal waves
Surface or Rayleigh waves :
Surface or Rayleigh waves travel on the surface of a relative thick solid material
penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. The particle movement has an elliptical
orbit. Raleigh waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface
defects and since they will follow the surface around curves, therefore can be
used to inspect areas that other waves might have difficulty in reaching.
Plate waves:
Plate waves can be propagated only in very thin metals. Lamb waves are the
most commonly used plate waves in NDT. Lamb waves are a complex vibrational
wave that travels through the entire thickness of a material. Propagation of Lamb
waves depends on density, elastic, and material properties of a component, and
they are influenced by a great deal by selected frequency and material thickness.
Velocity: How quickly a sound wave will travel
Frequency: How many vibrations per second

52

Wave length:
How far a sound wave will advance in completing one cycle The wavelength is
directly proportional to the velocity of the wave and inversely proportional to the
frequency of the wave. This relationship is shown by the following equation.

1 Second
A 2Hz

1 Second
B=5Hz

Speed of sound in air = 332 m/sec

A change in frequency will result in a change in wavelength. In ultrasonic testing,
the shorter wavelength resulting from an increase in frequency will help in the
detection of smaller discontinuities.
Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is the ability to locate small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally
increases with higher frequency (shorter wavelengths).

Resolution:

53

Resolution is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities that are close
together within the material or located near the part surface. Resolution also
generally increases as the frequency increases.
Velocity of sound traveling through materials:
Velocity of sound varies with the material in which it is traveling.
Material
Compression
Shear Velocity
Velocity m\sec
m\sec
Steel
5960
3245
Water
1490
NA
Air
344
NA
Copper
4700
2330
Attenuation of Sound Waves
When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance.
This weakening results from two basic causes, which are scattering and
absorption. The combined effect of scattering and absorption is called
attenuation.

Refraction and Snell's Law

When an ultrasound wave passes through an interface between two materials, it
produces both reflected and refracted waves. Refraction takes place at an
interface due to the different velocities of the acoustic waves within the two

54

materials. The velocity of sound in each material is determined by the material

properties (elastic modules and density) for that material.
Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles and the velocities of
the waves. Snell's law equates the ratio of material velocities v1 and v2 to the
ratio of the sine's of incident (Q1) and refraction (Q2) angles, as shown in the
following equation.

Where:
VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1.
VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.

Ultrasonic Probes
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion
of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for
ultrasonic testing. The active element is the Probe. It converts the electrical
energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa.
Characteristics of Probes
The probe is a very important part of the ultrasonic instrumentation system. The
probe converts electrical signals into mechanical vibrations (transmit mode) and
mechanical vibrations into electrical signals (receive mode). Many factors,
including material, mechanical and electrical construction, and the external
mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior a transducer.
Mechanical construction includes parameters such as radiation surface area,
mechanical damping, housing, connector type

55

Types of Probes

Ultrasonic transducers are manufactured for a variety of application and can be

custom fabricated when necessary. Careful attention must be paid to selecting
the proper transducer for the application It is important to choose transducers
that have the desired frequency, bandwidth, and focusing to optimize inspection
capability. Most often the transducer is chosen either to enhance sensitivity or
resolution of the system.

Transducers are classified into groups according to the application.

Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are
generally hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a rugged
casing to withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These
transducers are designed so that they are easy to grip and move along a
surface. They also often have replaceable wear plates to lengthen their
useful life. Coupling materials of water, grease, oils, or commercial

56

materials are used to remove the air gap between the transducer and the
component inspected. Contact probes are classified as.

Single crystal probe

Twin crystal probe
Normal beam or zero degree probe
Angle beam probe

Contact transducers are available in a variety of configurations to improve their

usefulness for a variety of applications.
Single crystal probe normal probe:
The flat contact transducer shown above is used normal beam inspections of
relatively flat surfaces, and where near surface resolution is not critical. If the
surface is curved, a shoe that matches the curvature of the part may need to be
added to the face of the transducer.

Twin crystal normal probe:

contain two independently operating elements in a single housing. One of the
elements transmits and the other receives. Active elements can be chosen for
their sending and receiving capabilities providing a transducer with a cleaner
signal, and transducers for special applications, such as inspection of course
grain material. Dual element transducers are especially well suited for making
57

measurements in applications where reflectors are very near the transducer

since this design eliminates the ring down effect that single-element transducers
experience. (When single-element transducers are operating in pulse echo
mode, the element can not start receiving reflected signals until the element has
stopped ringing from it transmit function.) Dual element transducers are very
useful when making thickness measurements of thin materials and when
inspecting for near surface defects. The two elements are angled towards each
other to create a crossed-beam sound path in the test material.
Angle beam transducers:
Angle beams are typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test
[Link] the fixed angle versions, the angle of refraction that is marked on the
transducer is only accurate for a particular material, which is usually steel. The
angled sound path allows the sound beam to be reflected from the back wall to
improve detectability of flaws in and around welded areas. They are also used to
generate surface waves for use in detecting defects on the surface of a
component.

Couplant
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of
ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is
generally necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air and
solids
Calibration Blocks

58

Standard blocks are used to calibrate the instrument and to calculate different
features of probe and the instrument. These blocks consists accurately cut and
fine polished surfaces, holes ,angles etc.

Inspection of Welded Joints

The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag
inclusions, lack of side-wall fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root
penetration, undercutting, and longitudinal or transverse cracks.

59

Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using a straight beam probe
in conjunction with an angle beam probe A straight beam probe, producing a
longitudinal wave at normal incidence into the test piece, is first used to locate
any laminations in or near the heat-affected zone. This is important because an
angle beam transducer may not be able to provide a return signal from a laminar
flaw.

Chapter VI

RADIORGAPHIC TESTING

60

Introduction:
In this method of Non-destructive testing the penetration property of X-ray and
Gamma rays to detect the discontinuities. The object to be inspected is placed
between the radiation source and a piece of film. X-rays or gamma rays pass
through the object. The object will stop some of the radiation. Thicker and denser
area will stop more of the radiation and show on the film lighter than thinner or
less dense area. Most weld defects will show on the film darker than the
surrounding area.
Nature of Penetrating Radiation
X-rays and gamma rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are
waveforms as are light rays, microwaves, and radio wave, but x-rays and gamma
rays cannot been seen, felt, or heard. They possess no charge and no mass and,
therefore, are not influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will always
travel in straight lines. They can be characterized by frequency, wavelength, and
velocity

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

61

The International System (SI) unit for activity is the Becquerel (Bq), w

Wavelengths of Electro Magnetic Spectrum

Electro Magnetic Radiation Type

Wave length in nm
700-400
400-100

Visible Light
Ultraviolet light
X-Rays
Gamma -Rays

1 nm =10-9 Meters

Advantage of Radiography

[Link] a permanent record

[Link] internal Flaws
[Link] volumetric flaws readily
[Link] be used on most materials
[Link] check for correct assembly
[Link] direct Images
[Link] time Image is possible
62

Disadvantages of Radiography
1-Radiation Health
2-Can be sensitive to defect orientation and could miss planar flaws
3-Has limited ability to detect fine cracks
4-Access is required to both sides of the object
5-Limited thickness of the material can be penetrated
6-Skilled radiographic interpretation is required
7-Require high capital cost
8-Relatively slow process
9-Require high capital cost
10-Require high running cost
Properties of X-rays and gamma rays
[Link] have no effect on the human senses
[Link] have adverse effect on the body tissues and blood
[Link] penetrate matter
[Link] move in straight line
[Link] are part of electromagnetic spectrum
[Link] travel at the speed of light
[Link] obey the inverse square law
[Link] ionize gases
[Link] may be scattered
[Link] make certain materials fluoresce
[Link] may be refracted, diffracted and polarized

X-ray Tube
High Electrical Potential
Electrons

X-ray Generator or Radioactive Source

Creates Radiation

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording63
Device

Properties of X-rays
1. Potential difference of around 300 kv is used
2. Approximately around 97- 99% heat & 1-3 % of x- rays are
generated
3. Anode is made up of cupper to carry out the heat. Additional
cooling using oil, air or water is also used
4- Target is made up of tungsten
5. Area of the target struck by the electrons is called as focal spot
6. Focal spot size should be big to absorb more heat but to produce
good quality radiograph this size should be the smallest
7. Important control points of the x-ray machine are timer, Amperage
control and Voltage control
8. More time more radiation more exposure
9. Amperage controls the intensity or quality of X-ray, 6-12 Amp are usually used
[Link] voltage generates the shorter wave length or quality of xrays more penetrating power
[Link] in voltage increases the speed of the electrons, therefore
high kinetic energy and high penetration

Gamma-rays:
Gamma-rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted by the disintegration of a
radioactive isotope and have energy from about 100 keV to well over 1 MeV. The
most useful gamma-emitting radioactive isotopes for radiological purposes are
found to be cobalt (Co60),iridium (Ir192),cesium (Cs137),ytterbium (Yb169), and
thulium (Tm170).
Properties of Gamma-rays

64

[Link] rays are emitted from artificial radio active isotope

[Link] active isotope is an unstable state of element which has different number
of neutrons to the normal state of the same element
[Link] mass number of Radio active Isotope will be different from same element
[Link] radio active isotope disintegrate continuously releasing electromagnetic
energy (gamma rays)
5-Gamma ray sources are usually disc,cylindrical or spherical shape
6-The discs: 3.0 mm diameter and 1 mm thick, stacked together
7-Cylindrical: Typically upto 4 mm in length
8-Spherical: 0.6 3.0 mm diameter
9-Sources are encapsulated in the capsules of 316 \ S12 grade Stainless steel
Isotope Decay Rate (Decay of the Gamma Source)
Loss of activity of a radioactive nuclease due to Disintegration

Half Life of Gamma source:

Time taken for a radio active Isotope to reduce its out put by half
Source

Half-life

60Cobalt

26 Years

Penetration range
steel
75- 150 mm

192Iridium

74 days

20 45 mm

Ytterbium 169

31 days

1-15 mm
65

Advantages of Gamma rays over X-rays

[Link] electrical or water supply are needed
[Link] equipment is usually smaller and lighter and therefore more portable
[Link] equipment is more simple
[Link] inaccessible to x-ray equipment are accessible to gamma equipment
[Link] of high energy there is less scatter
[Link] equipment is less expensive than x-ray equipment
[Link] penetrating power than x-rays
Disadvantages of gamma rays over x-rays
[Link] to the higher energy, poorer contrast and definition
[Link] times are longer
[Link] need replacing at regular intervals
[Link] radiation cannot be switched off
[Link] is shorter, resulting in poorer geometric unsharpness
[Link] handling is necessary

Radiographic Techniques
1)
2)
3)
4)

SWSI : ( Film Inside Source Outside )

SWSI : ( Film Outside Source Inside )
DWSI : ( Film Outside Source Outside )
DWDI : (Film Outside Source Outside

66

Radiographic Contrast

Radiographic contrast describes the differences in photographic density in a

radiograph. The contrast between different parts of the image is what forms the
image and the greater the contrast, the more visible features become.
Radiographic contrast has two main contributors: subject contrast and detector or
film contrast.
Subject contrast is determined by the following variables:
- Absorption differences in the specimen
- Wavelength of the primary radiation
- Scatter or secondary radiation
Film contrast is determined by the following:
- Grain size or type of film
- Chemistry of film processing chemicals
- Concentrations of film processing chemicals
- Time of development
- Temperature of development
- Degree of mechanical agitation (physical motion)

Exposing the film to produce higher film densities will generally increase contrast.
In other words, darker areas will increase in density faster than lighter areas
because in any given period of time more x-rays are reaching the darker areas.
Reasons for low contrast
Radiation wave length too short
Over exposure
Prolonged development
Too cold developer

67

Insufficient fixing
Fog on the film
Reasons for High contrast
Radiation wave length too long
Incorrect developer
Under exposure
Definition

Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one density to

another. There are a number of geometric factors of the X-ray equipment and the
radiographic setup that have an effect on definition. These geometric factors
include:
- Focal spot size, which is the area of origin of the [Link] focal spot size
should be as close to a point source as possible to produce the most definition.
- Source to film distance, which is the distance from the source to the part.
Definition increases as the source to film distance increase.
- Specimen to detector (film) distance, which is the distance between the
specimen and the detector. For optimal definition, the specimen and detector
should
be
as
close
together
as
possible.
.
- Abrupt changes in specimen thickness may cause distortion on the radiograph.
- Movement of the specimen during the exposure will produce distortion on the
radiograph.
- Film graininess, and screen mottling will decrease definition.

The grain size of the film will affect the definition of the radiograph. Wavelength
of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the wavelength shortens
and penetration increases, the apparent graininess of the film will increase. Also,
increased development of the film will increase the apparent graininess of the
radiograph.
Radiographic Density

68

Degree of blackening of a radiograph. Density is measured by a

[Link] density area is a dark area and low density area is a light
area. A high density area absorbs more light than the low density area
Density is the log of the intensity of light incident on the film to the intensity of
light transmitted through the film. A density reading of 2.0 is the result of only 1
percent of the transmitted light reaching the sensor.
Density required in the area of interest should be between 1.5 and
[Link] with very low density and with very high density are not
acceptable.
Reasons for low density
Under exposure to radiation
Insufficient development time
Development temperature too low
Incorrect developer
Reasons for Excessive density
. Over exposure to Radiation
Excessive development time
Development temperature too high
Incorrect Developer
sensitivity
The ability of the radiographic technique to detect the smallest possible
[Link] is measured by using Image Quality Indicators ( IQI ),also
called as Penetrameters. Sensitivity depends on Radiographic contrast and
Density.
Controlling Radiographic Quality
One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the use of
image quality indicators (IQI). IQIs provide a means of visually informing the film
interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and definition of the radiograph. The IQI
indicates that a specified amount of material thickness change will be detectable

in the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a certain level of definition so that
the density changes are not lost due to unsharpness. Without such a reference
point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and defects could go
undetected.
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various codes or
standards that invoke their use. In the United States two IQI styles are prevalent;
the placard, or hole-type and the wire IQI. IQIs comes in a variety of material

69

types so that one with radiation absorption characteristics similar to the material
being radiographed can be used.

Hole-Type IQIs
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material
group classification of hole-type image quality indicators. E1025 designates eight
groups of shims based on their radiation absorption characteristics. A notching
system is incorporated into the requirements allowing the radiographer to easily
determine if the penetrameter is the correct material type for the product. The
thickness in thousands of an inch is noted on each pentameter by a lead number
0.250 to 0.375 inch wide depending on the thickness of the shim. Military or
Government standards require a similar penetrameter but use lead letters to
indicate the material type rather than notching system as shown on the left in the
image above.
Image quality levels are typically designated using a two part expression such as
2-2T. The first term refers to the IQI thickness expressed as a percentage of the
region of interest of the part being inspected. The second term in the expression
refers to the diameter of the hole that must be revealed and it is expressed as a
multiple of the IQI thickness. Therefore, a 2-2T call-out would mean that the shim
thickness should be two percent of material thickness and that a hole that is
twice the IQI thickness must be detectable on the radiograph. This presentation
of a 2-2T IQI in the radiograph verifies that the radiographic technique is capable
of showing a material loss of 2% in the area of interest.
It should be noted that even if 2-2T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a
defect of the same diameter and material loss may not be visible. The holes in
the penetrameter represent sharp boundaries, and a small thickness change.
Discontinues within the part may contain gradual changes, and are often less
visible. The penetrameter is used to indicate quality of the radiographic technique
and not intended to be used as a measure of size of cavity that can be located on
the radiograph.

70

Wire-Type IQIs

ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using

wire penetrameters (IQIs) to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set of
six wires arranged in order of increasing diameter and encapsulated between two
sheets of clear plastic. E747 specifies four wire IQIs sets, which control the wire
diameters. The set letter (A, B, C or D) is shown in the lower right corner of the
IQI. The number in the lower left corner indicates the material group. The same
image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 2-2T) used for hole-type IQIs are
typically also used for wire IQIs. The wire sizes that correspond to various holetype quality levels can be found in a table in E747 F = 0.79 (constant form factor
forwire)
Placement of IQIs
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a
material thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the
IQI may be placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of
interest. When a block is used, the IQI should the same distance from the film as
it would be if placed directly on the part in the region of interest. The IQI should
also be placed slightly away from the edge of the part so that atleast three of its
edges are visible in the radiograph.

Secondary (Scatter) Radiation

Secondary or scatter radiation must often be taken into consideration when
producing a radiograph. The scattered radiation create a loss of contrast and
definition. Often secondary radiation is thought of as radiation striking the film
71

reflected from an object in the immediate area, such as a wall, or from the table
or floor where the part is resting. Side scatter originates from walls, or objects on
the source side of the film. Control of side scatter can be achieved by moving
objects in the room away from the film, moving the x-ray tube to the center of the
vault, or placing a collimator at the exit port thus reducing the diverging radiation
surrounding the central beam.
It is often called backscatter when it comes from objects behind the film. Industry
codes and standards often require that a lead letter "B" be placed on the back of
the cassette to verify the control of back scatter. If the letter "B" shows as a
"ghost" image on the film the letter has absorbed the back scatter radiation
indicating a significant amount of radiation reaching the film. Control of back
scatter radiation is achieved by backing the film in the cassette with sheets of
lead typically 0.010 inch thick. It is a common practice in industry to place 0.005
lead screen in front and 0.010 backing the film.

Lead screens in the thickness range of 0.004 to 0.015 inch typically reduce
scatter radiation at energy levels below 150, 000 volts. Above this point they will
emit electrons to provide more exposure of the film to ionizing radiation thus
increasing the density of the radiograph.
Undercut
Another condition that must often be controlled when producing a radiograph is
called undercut. Parts with holes, hollow areas, or abrupt thickness changes are

72

likely to suffer from undercut if controls are not put in place. Undercut appears as
lightening of the radiograph in the area of the thickness transition. This results in
a loss of resolution or blurring at the transition area.

Undercut occurs due to scattering within the film. At the edges of a part or areas
where the part transitions from thick to thin, the intensity of the radiation reaching
the film is much greater than in the thicker areas of the part. The high level of
radiation intensity reaching the film results in a high level of scattering within the
film. It should also be noted that the faster the film speed, the more undercut that
is likely to occur. Scattering from within the walls of the part also contributed
some to undercut but research has shown that scattering within the film is the
primary cause. Masks are used to control undercut. Sheets of lead cut to fill
holes or surround the part and metallic shot and liquid absorbers are often used
as masks.
Filters in Radiography
At x-ray energies, filters consist of material placed in the useful beam to absorb,
preferentially, radiations based on energy level or to modify the spatial
distribution of the beam. Filtration is required to absorb the lower-energy x-ray
photons emitted by the tube before they reach the target. The use of filters
produce a cleaner image by absorbing the lower energy x-ray photons that tend
to scatter more.

Radiographic Film

73

X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion-gelatin containing a

radiation sensitive silver halide and a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted base.
Usually, the emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers about 0.0005
inch thick. Putting emulsion on both sides of the base doubles the amount of
radiation-sensitive silver halide, and thus increases the film speed. The emulsion
layers are thin enough so developing, fixing, and drying can be accomplished in
a reasonable time.
Film Selection
The selection of a film when radiographing any particular component depends on
a number of different factors. Listed below are some of the factors that must be
considered when selected a film and developing a radiographic technique.
1. the composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in some
cases, its weight and location.
2. the type of radiation used, whether x-rays from an x-ray generator or
gamma rays from a radioactive source.
3. the kilovoltages available with the x-ray equipment or the intensity of the
gamma radiation.
4. the relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical
results.

Film Processing
Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of chemical
concentration, temperature, time, and physical movement. Whether processing is
done by hand or automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require the
highest possible degree of consistency and quality control.

74

Manual Processing & Darkrooms

Manual processing begins with the darkroom. An area dry and free of dust and
dirt should be used to load and unload the film. While another area, the wet side,
will be used to process the film. Thus protecting the film from any water or
chemicals that may be located on the surface of the wet side.
Each of step in film processing must be excited properly to develop the image,
wash out residual processing chemicals, and to provide adequate shelf life of the
radiograph.A radiograph may be retrieved after 5 or even 20 years in storage.
Viewing Radiographs
Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray or gamma radiation) are generally
viewed on a light-box. Proper viewing conditions are very important when
interpreting a radiograph. The viewing conditions can enhance or degrade the
subtle details of radiographs.
Before beginning the evaluation of a radiograph, the viewing equipment and area
should be considered. The area should be clean and free of distracting materials.
Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film markers should be close at hand. Thin
cotton gloves should be available and worn to prevent fingerprints on the
radiograph. Ambient light levels should be low. Ambient light levels of less than 2
fc are often recommended, but subdued lighting, rather than total darkness, is
preferable in the viewing room. The brightness of the surroundings should be
about the same as the area of interest in the radiograph. Room illumination must
be arranged so that there are no reflections from the surface of the film under
examination.
Film viewers should be clean and in good working [Link] viewers should
provide a source of defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from
viewers can cause distortion of the radiograph. A film having a measured density
of 2.0 will allow only 1.0 percent of the incident light to pass. A film containing a
density of 4.0 will allow only 0.01 percent of the incident light to pass. With such
low levels of light passing through the radiograph the delivery of a good light
source is important.

Radiographic film quality and acceptability, as required by the procedure, should

first be determined. It should be verified that the radiograph was produced to the
correct density on the required film type, and that it contains the correct
identification information. It should also be verified that the proper image quality
indicator was used and that the required sensitivity level was met. Next, the

75

radiograph should be checked to ensure that it does not contain processing and
handling artifacts that could mask discontinuities or other details of interest.
Once a radiograph passes these initial checks it is ready for interpretation.
Radiographic film interpretation is an acquired skill combining, visual acuity with
knowledge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated
discontinues. If the component is inspected while in service, an understanding of
applied loads and history of the component is helpful.
A process for viewing radiographs, left to right top to bottom etc., is helpful and
will prevent overlooking an area on the radiograph. One part of the interpretation
process, sometimes overlooked, is rest. The mind as well as the eyes needs to
occasionally rest when interpreting radiographs.
When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small
light source and moving the radiograph over the small light source, or changing
the intensity of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant
indications. Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate to help
identify and evaluate indications. Viewing the actual component being inspected
is very often helpful in developing an understanding of the details seen in a
radiograph.
Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time. By
using the proper equipment and developing consistent evaluation processes, the
interpreter will increase his or her probability of detecting defects.
Spurious Indications on the films or ( Artefacts )
Spurious Indications are caused by incorrect processing or careless handling of
the film
The common artefacts are
1- Radiation Fogging: This occurs when the film is stored too close to a source
of radiation or when the film is accidentally left in the exposure area during
the exposure of another film

2- Light Fog: Due to the storage of the film in a faulty storage storage box
where white light is leaks into the film OR due to the wrong type of safe light
in the dark room

76

3- Pressure Markings: Due to careless handling of the film during loading and
unloading of the film
4- Static Marks:This has the appearance of the dark branched and jagged fine
lines. It is due to rapid removal of the film from the wrapper
5 - Scratch Marks: Usually caused by a finger nail or abrasive material on the
screens or during handling
6- High or Low Density Marks: Caused when handling the films with greasy or
chemically stained fingers
7- Low density Patches or smears : Due to splashes of water or fixing solution on
the film
8- High density Patches or smears : Due to splashes of Developer on the film
9- Film Mottle: Due to the use of old films
10- Light Spots: Caused by dust particles between the film and the intensifying
Screen
11- Screen Marks: Due to contamination of the intensifying screens with
chemicals OR due to the defects on the screen such as cracking or
buckling
12-Air bells: These are shown discs of lower density caused by air traped on the
surface of the emulsion, due to insufficient agitation
13- Patches or Streaks: Due to insufficient agitation during developer or in the
rinse bath
14- Reticulation:This is the appearance of leather grain and due to rupture of the
emulsion caused by great differences between succesive processing
solutions
15- Drying Marks: Due to drops of water remaining on the surface of the film,
often occur due to rapid drying the film in the high temperature cabinet.

Chapter VII

Eddy Current Testing

Introduction

77

A varying electric current flowing in a coil gives rise to a varying magnetic field. A
nearby conductor resists this magnetic field and this produces an eddy current flowing in
the surface layer of the conductor and flowing in the direction opposite to the current in
the coil.
An induced eddy current in a conductor produces a magnetic field that opposes the
magnetic field produced by the coil, resulting in a change of impedance. It is this
impedance change that is to be detected with a high degree of accuracy by the measuring
equipment.
Cracks and other surface conditions modify the eddy currents generated in the conductor
and give rise to a local brief change in the impedance. This change is accurately
monitored.
Eddy currents always flow parallel to the plane of the winding of the test coil producing
them ,A discontinuity parallel to the eddy current can be missed by this method
Basic Principle

Coil's
Coil

magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents
Conductive
Material

Eddy current testing method can be successfully used to detects surface breaking and
near surface discontinuities such as
Cracks
Inclusions
78

Dents
Holes
Scratches

Eddy current testing method can also identify the material properties such as
Alloy composition
Heat treatment
Hardness
Grain size
Magnetic Permeability
Eddy current testing method can also be used to monitor the surface condition such as
Surface coating
Corrosion
Specimen Temperature

Eddy Current Testing Depends on

Electrical conductivity of the material

Nature of discontinuities in the material
Magnetic permeability of the material
79

Dimensions and shape of the specimen

Current frequency
Coil size
Number of turns in the coil
Metal condition

Advantages of Eddy Current Testing Method

Instantaneous results
Sensitive to a range of physical properties
Firm contact between inspection coil and specimen not required
Equipment is small and self-contained
Can detect very small discontinuities
Defects in tubes and other circular parts can be detected using special probes
Internal surface of cylinders can be using special probes

Disadvantages of Eddy Current Testing Method

This method can be used on electrical conductors only

Depth of penetration is restricted
Interpretation needs skill
Defects parallel to coil surface can be missed
Ends of the parts can not be tested

80

Chapter VIII

Selection of NDT Methods

Defect to be detected
Surface Cracks
( i ) Grinding cracks
( ii ) Heat treat cracks
( iii ) Solidification Cracks
( iv ) Crater Cracks
( v ) Cold Cracks
Inclusions

Most Suitable
Method
PT, MPI &
Eddy Current

Comments

UT, RT & MPI

UT & RT for deep defects

MPI for near surface defects
RT&PT for all metals
MPI for Ferrous Metals
ET for conductive materials
UT if the rear side of the weld
is not visible
RT is sensitive for vertical or
inclined defects
UT is sensitive for horizontal or
inclined defects
UT is very sensitive
PT is most sensitive
RT is most sensitive
RT for root undercut, if not visible
RT if other side is not visible
RT if weld face is not visible
RT if weld root is not visible
RT gives clear image
VT & RT are better
RT if weld root is not visible
Welder Gauge is used to measure

Lack of penetration
Lack of root fusion
Concavity

RT,UT, MPI, DPI &

ET

(i) Lack of sidewall fusion

( ii ) Lack of inter run fusion

RT & UT

Laminations
Surface Porosity
Internal Porosity
Undercut
Mismatch
Inadequate weld reinforcement
Burn-Through
Whiskers
Underfill, Underflush
Root concavity
Convexity

UT
VT, MPI, PT
RT,UT
VT, MPI, PT,RT
VT,RT
VT,RT
VT,RT
UT,RT
VT,UT,RT
VT,RT
VT

81

PT for all metals

MPI for Ferrous Metals
ET for conductive materials