STEEL STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION

Prof. Dr. Nesrin YARDIMCI TRYAKOLU

[Link] BACKGROUND
Early humans built primarily for shelter,
using simple methods.
Building materials came from the land,
and fabrication was dictated by the limits
of the materials and the builders hands and
structures,, like beams and arches
structures
could be also observed in nature
nature..
Building design was
all about repeating what was already known
known..

Until about 1850, structural design was largely an art.

 Usage of iron material in buildings was

a new era in structural building
building..
Iron (tools, weapon)

Coalbrookdale

Cast ironiron-very high carbon content >2 percent

([Link]--bridges
([Link]
bridges-1779 Coalbrookdale Bridge)
Wrought ironiron-very low carbon content<0.15 percent
(second half of 18.century18.century1850 Britannia Bridge)
Steel
Steel-- carbon content from 0.15 percent to 1.7 percent
(second half of [Link] Bridge
Bridge and high rise buildingbuilding1874 Eads Bridge, St. Louis Missouri)

Eiffel Tower

Cast iron bridges

The Coalbrookdale Bridge (1779)

Span : 30m
Still used.
This bridge was a turning point in engineering
history because it changed the course of the
Industrial Revolution by introducing iron as a
structural material.

Thomas Wilson's Wear Bridge

Telford's Mythe Bridge

Southwark Bridge
Bridge--London
(1819)
Span 73 m.
The longest cast iron bridge.

Pont du Caroussel Bridge

Bridge--Paris
(1839)
Span : 3x48 m
Her biri 48m olan aklktan

Grandfey ViaductViaduct-Fribourg
(1862)
Span : 7x 49m
Wrough iron

Steel bridges
Eads BridgeBridge- St. Louis,
Louis, Missouri
(1874
1874))
Span : 159 m

Garabit Viaduct
Viaduct--South of France
(18
188
84)
Span : 165 m

During the construction

42000 ton steel and 4600 workers is used.

Firth of Forth Bridge

Bridge--Scotland
(1883 1890
1890))
Maximum Span : 521 m

Bayonne Bridge
Bridge-- New Jersey
(1931)
Span : 504 m

Sydney Harbour Bridge

(1932)
Span : 503 m

The first cast iron and steel buildings

St George's Church
Church,,
Everton, UK (1812(1812-14)

Bibliotheque Nationale
(1858--68
(1858
68))

White doors (1726), Wales

Oxford Museum (1860)

Bibliotheque Sainte Genevive

(1843--50
(1843
50))

The first cast iron and steel industrial buildings

Albert Dock Buildings, Liverpool

Liverpool,,
(1845)

Charles Bage's Flax Mill,

Shrewsbury, (1796
1796))

Greene's Boat House

Sheerness, UK (1858)
Gardener's store
store--a-furniture
furniture,, Glasgow
(1856
1856))
Menier Chocolate Factory
Noisiel--sur
Noisiel
sur--Marne, (1872
1872))

Eiffel Tower (Gustave Eiffel, Paris, France

France,, 1887 ~ 1889)
1889)
9000 ton wrought iron

321m

The second step in the development of steel construction is

the use of welded joints in the beginning of 20th century
(Rivet
(Rivet
Bolt
Bolt
Weld).
Advancement in the methods of analysis turned design
from art into science.
Since those beginnings, steel has been vastly improved in
both material and in methods and types of applications.
The largest boom for steel building construction began
during World War II when airplane hangars were produced
utilizing an all steel construction for military use. Many
structures were produced and required only the use of a
small labour force and hand tools to assemble and, if
necessary, could later just easily be disassembled and
moved to another location.

Cost of labour and materials started to increase in the

following years and being economic become as important as
safety.
The necessity to be sensitive in preserving environment and
using
us
ing natural sources is a point that has to be taken into
consideration.
(Safety, economy, aesthetics, environment and sustainability)
Tyne BridgeBridge-Newcastle
Newcastle--1928

Milennium Bridge

2. STRUCTURAL DESIGN
(Safety, economy, aesthetics, environment and
sustainability)

Structural design may be defined as a mixture of art and

science,, combining the experienced engineers intuitive
science
feeling for the behaviour of a structure with a sound
knowledge of principles of statics, dynamics,
mechanics of materials and structural analysis,
analysis,
produce a safe economical structure which will serve its
intended purpose. At the same time it is necessary to be
sensitive to preserve environment and natural materials in
structural design. So structural design should be safe,
economic, aesthetic and sustainable.

2.1 Responsibilities of the structural

designer
Safety

Structures must have enough strength, rigidity and

toughness while they are used and at the same time they
should have enough safety to overcome extra possible
loads or loss of elements resistance
resistance.. Provisions must be
made for overload or understrength
understrength..
In general, the expression for structural safety
requirement may be written as,

Rn iQi
Left side represents the design resistance or strength and
right side represents the factored loads.
loads.
: Resistance factor < 1
: Load factor >1

 The study what constitutes the proper formulation of

structural safety has been continuing during nearly the past
30 years. (Failure occurring in a member, connection or
system.)
Limit states are the conditions of a structure at which it
ceases to fulfill its intended function. These are
Strength (safety): Behavioral phenomena as achieving
maximum strength, buckling, fatigue, fracture, overturning
and sliding.
Serviceability
erviceability:: Concerned with occupancy of building
(deflection, vibration, permanent deformation and
cracking).

Failure of structures
Insufficient attention to the details of connections, erection
problems, and foundation problems.
To neglect some of the forces acting on the connection.
Insufficient bearing or anchorage.
Foundation settlements cause a large number of structural
failures like cracks.
Inadequate attention to deflection or vibration.
For steel structures some structural failures occur because
inadequate attention is given to , fatigue of members,
bracing against swaying, stability of members or system,
buckling of compression members, lateral buckling of
beams. When structure is completed, it should be
sufficiently braced with floors, walls, connections, and
special bracing. During erection some special temporary
bracing may be required.

Economy
All the factors affecting the total cost of the structure have
to be taken into consideration
consideration.. And the designer needs to
keep in mind the factors that can lower cost without
sacrifice of strength
strength.. (The use of standard size members,
simple connections and details, and members and materials
that will not require an unreasonable amount of maintance
through the years
years..)

Aesthetics
The structure should be aesthetic and in harmony with the
environment.. Appearance may often be the major factor in
environment
selecting the type of structure
structure..

Environment
The construction and use of buildings, roads and
bridges have an effect on the environment.
Natural resources are used to a minimum, energy is
used economically and pollution is reduced.
The choice of materials by contractors; architects and
engineers has ecological importance.
It is essential to respect the environment, row
materials and natural resources.
The extraction and transport of row materials; the
production and manufacture of construction materials;
transport to the site; construction and its
maintenance; and ability to recycle materials must be
analyzed.

Sustainability
Sustainability is respond to the needs of the present
without compromising the capacity of future
generations to respond to theirs
theirs..
Human
activities
must
become
ecologically
sustainable..
sustainable
The success of the project has to be measured on
ecological, economic and social sustainability
sustainability..
For sustainability, cost of whole life cycle of the
building should be calculated and evaluated with
economy and environmental effects.
Sustainable development means optimising the
utilisation of row materials and energy during their
entire life cycle, and reducing to a minimum any
adverse effects on the environment.

Constructability
It needs four processes to make a complete steel structure.

Production, Detailing
Production,
Detailing,, Fabrication
Fabrication,, Erection
Production & Recycling
Generally, high quality steel can be produced from steel
scraps within 3 hours. These scraps are collected with a
crane and they are put in a furnace having at 75MW
current (electricity) for 60 minutes with carbon
electrodes. Then, the molten metal is poured into the
container of required shape.
The properties of steel are varied by its carbon content
because it is the major composition of steel with iron. As
per the requirements, Mn, Ni and Cr also are added to
make changes the properties of steel. Finally, the
chemical composition and physical properties are
checked. The unshaped steel pieces are in the form of
flats, billets, ingots and near net shapes before getting
required structural member.

Detailing

It is the process to create drawings and giving so

precise and accurate dimensions to them which help
much for complete fabrication and erection of steel
structures. Nowadays, the drawing files are created as
NC files also to give the direct input to CNC machines
and the fabrication time also is reduced.

Fabrication

This is to be done in workshop with the help of detailed

shop drawings. Generally, the required holes in a steel
member are drilled at one go. Most of the cuttings are
performed with flame cutting. The other processes like
welding, punching and bending, etc. also are done in
workshop. Finally, the parts are assembled according to
the assembly drawings and they are marked with
separate assembly number.

Erection
After fabrication, the marked assemblies are taken to
working site by transport. It is a difficult process
compared to detailing and fabrication. The detailed
drawings should be more comfortable to erection
labours working and safety wise. So while detailing,
the safety standards should be considered and
included.
Structures can be fabricated and erected without great
problems arising. Designers need to understand
fabrication methods and field erection (transportation
of the materials to the job site, labor conditions,
equipment available for erection) of steel. So
reasonable, practical and economical designs can be
produced.

2.2 Design procedure

Functional design

(adequate working areas, ventilation, air

conditioning, transportation facilities, lighting, aesthetics)

Structural framework design

Conceptual design (Establishment

of functions, general
shape, layout of spaces, types of supports, accurate dimensions)

Preliminary structural configuration

elements)

(Arrangement of

Establishment of the loads

Preliminary design (Member selection, approximate sizes,
rough details)

Analysis
Evaluation
Redesign
Final design
documents)

(Working drawings, shop drawings, project

It is important architect and engineers work together

2.3 Material choice

Major factors that may affect material choice are,
Function of the structure,
Soil conditions,
Geographical location,
Whether it is going to be permanent or temporary,
Time period it is going to be in function,
Determined date of operation,
Funds dedicated to construction,
Operational expenses,
Changes in the costs of materials,
Experience, local customs and habits.

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
3.1 Mechanical properties

Homogenous and isotropic

High strength
High Young Modulus
Equal tension and compression strength
Ductile
Tough

Homogenous and isotropic

The properties of steel do not change with time, and is same in every part of the
cross--section.
cross

High strength

The high strength of steel per unit of weight means that the weight of the structures
will be small
small.. Safety coefficients used in the calculations are smaller than the other
materials..
materials

High Young Modulus

Steel behaves closer to design assumptions than most materials because it follows
Hooks law up to fairly high stresses
stresses.. The moments of inertia of steel structure can
be accurately calculated
calculated..

Equal tension and compression strength

No other structural material has this property and this makes steel preferable in
buildings that differ in their architectural design
design..

Ductility

The property of a material by which it can withstand extensive deformation without

failure under high tensile stresses is ductility. When a mild or lowlow -carbon structural
steel member is being tested in tension, a considerable reduction in cross section
and a large amount of elongation will occur at the point of failure before the actual
fracture occurs. A material that does not have this property generally unacceptable
and is probably hard and brittle, and might break if subjected to sudden shock.

Toughness

Structural steels are toughtough-that is they have both strength and ductility. A steel
member loaded until it has large deformations will still be able withstand large
forces. This is a very important characteristics, because it means that steel members
can be subjected to large deformations during fabrication and erection without
fracture--thus allowing them to be bent, hammered, and sheared, and to have holes
fracture
punched in them without visible damage. The ability of a material to absorb energy
in large amounts is called toughness.

Stress-strain
Stressdiagram

 If a piece of ductile structural steel is subjected to tensile force

it will begin elongate.
The amount of elongation will increase linearly within certain
limits.
When tensile stress reaches roughly equal to threethree-fourths of
the ultimate strength the elongation will begin to increase at a
greater rate without a corresponding increase is the stress.
Proportional limit: The highest point of the linear portion
(Hooks law applies)
Elastic limit: The largest stress that material can withstand
without being permanently deformed
Yield stress: A significant increase in the elongation, or strain,
without a corresponding increase in stress (The most important
property for design)
Elastic strain: The strain occurs before the yield stress
Plastic strain : The strain occurs after the yield stress (with no
increase in stress)

A steel structure has a reserve plastic strain that enables it

to resist overloads and sudden shocks (ductility). If it did
not have this ability it might suddenly fracture, like glass.

Strain hardening: Following

the plastic strain, the range
additional stress is necessary
to produce additional strain

3.2 Structural steel production

Steel is defined as a combination of iron and a small amount of
carbon (Less than 1 percent) and also small percentages of some
other elements.
The first steel were accidentally present when iron was heated in
contact with charcoal.
Kelly and Bessemer added some needed elements to restore the
impurities of molten iron.
Today most of the structural steel shapes and plates are made by
melting scrap steel. The molten steel is poured into mold
mol ds that
have approximately the final shapes of the member.
The shapes may be further proceed by cold rolling, by applying
various coatings, and by process of annealing (heated to an
intermediate temperature range, held that temperature for several
hours, and allow to slowly cool to room temperaturetemperature-less hardness,
greater ductility).
Steel falls in between cast iron (2 percent carbon) and rough
iron ( 0.15 percent carbon) and has carbon contents in the range
of 0.15 and 1.7 percent.

3.3 Sections

 W Shape (Wide Flange Beam): Most commonly used

for its good strength and easy availability. WW-shapes have
large moments of inertia around their principal axes,
making them ideal for flexure with parallel inner and outer
flange surfaces that are of constant thickness. This flange
design provides greater strength than that of S shape.
S Shape (American Standard II- Beam): S-shape was
the first beam section rolled in America but no longer
widely used in building construction. It is a rolled section
with two parallel, narrow flanges whose inner surfaces are
sloped approximately 17 degrees connected by a web. It is
used in monorails and crane runways.
HP Shape: This is similar to WW-shape. But it is having
width of web and flange equal but thicker than that of WWshape. Due to its higher strength, it is used only for
withstanding the high impacts of a pile hammer.
hammer.

 C Channel
Channel:: Similar to SS-shape, C shape has two narrow,
tapering, parallel flanges except that it extends only on one
side of the web. It is not effective as a beam or column.
However, it is best to use for framing floor openings,
stringers for steel stairs and stairwells. Efficient built
built--up
members can be constructed out of channel assembled
together with other structural shapes and connected by
bolts or welds. The profiles of CC-shapes available from
different manufacturers are essentially the same.
M Shape: M-shapes are similar to WW-shapes in cross
sectional profile. These shapes are lightweight and cannot
be classified as W, S, or HP shapes.
MC Channel: It is very similar to channel but differs with
the width and slope of its flange. MCMC-shapes are special
purpose channel other than the standard CC-shapes. The
availability of these shapes is limited and should be
checked prior to specifying their use.

 L Angle: Its legs may be equal or unequal and it is used

for bracings, connections and trusses.
WT Shape: These shapes are manufactured directly from
W, M, and SS-shapes split longitudinally at midmid-depth.
However, these can also be produced by offoff-centre splitting
as specified on order to the manufacturer. Structural tees
are often used as top and bottom chords of prepre-fabricated
trusses and sometimes as lintels.
Pipe: Steel pipe is also used as a structural member,
specifically as column, in building construction. It has three
classifications-- the standard weight, extra strong, and
classifications
double--extra strong. Its high strengthdouble
strength-to
to--weight ratios give
it excellent load bearing capabilities. It has also uniform
wall thickness and exceptional concentricity simplifying
fabrication and reducing material costs. It is used for
handrails, columns and bollards.

 HSS (Hollow Structural Shape): Earlier, it was referred

as tubular section. Hollow Structural Section is high
strength welded steel tubing used as structural elements in
buildings and other structures and a variety of
manufactured products. It is produced in round, square and
rectangular shapes and a broad range of sizes. Benefits
include aesthetic appeal, high strength toto-weight ratios,
uniform strength, cost effectiveness and recycling.
PL and FL Bars: They are having a thickness greater than
1/8. They are used as base plate, cap plate, shear plate
and end plate connections.
Sheet Metal:
Metal: Thickness less than 1/8 and is mostly not
under the scope of a steel fabricator. It is referred as gage
material.
Metal Deck: Steel deck is made by cold forming structural
grade sheet steel into a repeating pattern of parallel ribs.
Standard deck width varies with the product used but full
sheets are usually 12", 18", 24", 30" or 36". Deck is
typically attached to the building frame with arc puddle
welds, self drilling screws or powder or pneumatically
driven pins. Sheet to sheet fastening is done with screws,
button punching (crimping), or welds.

4. PROPERTIES OF STEEL
BUILDINGS

Rapid construction in all weathers

Ease of fabrication and speed of erection
Easy field repair
Design flexibility
Renewable
Components can be rere-used
Dimensional stability
Repairing and strengthening
Restoration and renovation
Reduced form and scaffold
Structure can start to function right after its completion
Quality and comfort

4.1 Architectural

Steel creates architectural creativity and diversity.

Residences

Small offices

Altunizade residences

Borusan ShowroomShowroom-stanbul

Eczacba--Kanyon,stanbul
Eczacba

 Reduced number of columns.

Smaller beam and column
sections.
Thin slabs.
slabs.

Column crosscross-sections
1000 kN, 3.6 m buckling length,
length, 25 mm fire proof
290
B 45

190
140x140
235 MPa

170

230

120x120
235 MPa

HEB180
235 MPa

221
HEA180
355 MPa

10 000 kN, 3.6 m buckling length,

length, 25 mm fire proof

850
400
B 45

350x350
355 MPa

300
250x250
355 MPa

HD400x382
355 MPa

466
HD400x287
460 MPa

443

Space for installation.

Space : Clear spans achieved by using steel reduced number of supports,

thereby increasing useable space, leading to increase flexibility of use of the
enclosed space

Comfort: The use of insulating materials improves acoustic, thermal and

Comfort:
vibration comfort to acceptable or better levels, making the internal
environment more peaceful and pleasant, bathing it in natural light coming
through wide openings from outside.

Aesthetics: Slender, elegant steel structures fit harmoniously into every kind
Aesthetics:
of rural and urban environment. Steel structures are often used to renovate
old buildings and can be adopted to both classical and contemporary styles.

Flexibility: Steel solutions such as those used in office space with spans 18
Flexibility:
meters, make it possible to rearrange the space to suit changes in use and
thus support changing lifestyles and accommodate the any changes that lie
ahead.

Freedom: Opening up spaces, steel gives free rein to creativity. Because of

Freedom:
its mechanical properties steel can accommodate any architectural design. It
offers virtually infinite opportunities with respect to shape, colour and
appearance.

Creativity: Steel encourages architectural creativity and diversity. Though its

Creativity:
ability to meet the highest technical standards while imposing few constrains
with respect to shape, steel has given rise to an explosion in inventiveness.

Quality and comfort:

comfort: Because its structures have optimum weight/strength
ratio steel opens up optimum, luminous space. Premises can be modified or
enlarged to adapt to new uses or lifestyles and to improve the quality of life
and comfort. The small amount of work required on site improves safety and
convenience during the project.

4.2 Earthquake

Steel structural systems are advantageous in earthquake areas.

Steel systems have low self

self--weigh
weigh.. So earthquake load is less
than the other systems (F=m*a)
(F=m*a)..
The ability to absorb energy is in large amounts
amounts..
Plastic hinges may occur and this gives more safety in design
design..

4.3 Recycling

Steel is 100% recyclable.

recyclable.

100% of the steel used in construction (all products) are recyclable. More
over 80% of these steel have now themselves been produced from
recycled steel. They conserve the planets natural sources during
construction by limiting the need for such materials as water and
aggregates. Additionally, steel structures can be partly or completely
dismantled and reused.

4.4 Quality

Structural steel is an industrial product.

product.

All parts of the structural system are built in a factory environment,

according to standards and regulations and they have industrial quality
guarantee. All structural steel materials can be seen and control, during
the construction of the building and after it is built and used. This means
transparency in every state of production and construction.

4.5 Environment

To built in steel is to respect the environment.

environment .

Steel construction may be recycled indefinitely

indefinitely..
Sections are produced exclusively from steel scrap
scrap..
Use natural recourses and energy in a rational way
way..
It is possible to construct buildings in very small
construction sites
sites.. Work site is clean and does not
generate dust and waste
waste..
The amount of work on site is limited and requires less
transport
Does not harm the environment in any stage of the
construction.. (Dry methods
construction
methods..)

4.6 Sustainability

Less weight
Small cross
cross--sections
Transparent facades
Flexibility in design
Easily modification or enlarging
Re--use
Re
Recycling

A sustainable building,
building, or green building is an outcome
of a design philosophy which focuses on:
increasing the efficiency of resource use

energy
energy,, water
water,, and materials
reducing building impacts on human
health and the environment

during the building's lifecycle, through better siting, design

design,,
construction,, operation, maintenance, and removal.
construction
Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
Protecting occupant health and improving employee
productivity
Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation

Effective green building can lead to:

reduced operating costs by increasing productivity and

using less energy and water,
improved public and occupant health due to improved
indoor air quality,
quality, and
reduced environmental impacts by, for example, lessening
storm water runoff and the heat island effect.

Practices
Green building brings together a vast array of practices
and techniques to reduce and ultimately eliminate the
impacts of buildings on the environment and human
health. It often emphasizes taking advantage of
renewable resources,
resources, e.g., using sunlight through passive
solar,, active solar,
solar
solar, and photovoltaic techniques and using
plants and trees through green roofs,
roofs, rain gardens,
gardens, and
for reduction of rainwater runrun-off.

Material
Building materials typically considered to be 'green' include
rapidly renewable plant materials like bamboo
The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) also suggests
using recycled industrial goods.
Reduced energy use
To increase the efficiency of the building envelope,
envelope, (the
barrier between conditioned and unconditioned space), they
may use highhigh-efficiency windows and insulation in walls,
ceilings, and floors. Another strategy, passive solar building
design,, is often implemented in lowdesign
low-energy homes.
Onsite generation of renewable energy through solar power,
power,
wind power,
power, hydro power,
power, or biomass can significantly reduce
the environmental impact of the building.
Reduced waste
During the construction phase, one goal should be to reduce
the amount of material going to landfills
landfills.. WellWell-designed
buildings also help reduce the amount of waste generated by
the occupants as well, by providing onon-site solutions such as
compost bins to reduce matter going to landfills.
Wastewater from sources such as dishwashing or washing
machines, can be used for subsurface irrigation, or if treated,
for nonnon-potable purposes.

The steel industry is an integral part of sustainable society.

Safe working environment

Employee training and education
Community healtcare and schools

Eco
Eco--efficient:%100 recyclable
Synergies with other industries
Responsible use of natural recources

Quality steel products

Taxes and shareholders dividents
Employees wages and benefits

Talented employees
License to operate

Natural recources
Recycled steel
Enviromental laws and regulations

Capital
Demand for steel products

4.7 Reconstruction without destruction

When steel buildings no longer have a reason for existence
at the place in which they are located, they can be
dismantled and rebuilt elsewhere. This solution has proved
itself for buildings and car parks intended as temporary
remedies to problems posed by current requirements.
So steel is reused in an optimum manner, and the costs of
dismantling and reconstruction are generally less than
those of a new construction.

4.8 Cost

All the factors affecting total cost has to be taken

into consideration.
Steel saves time. Prefabrication cuts construction time and
allows accurate sequencing of the various building trades.
Faster construction means reduced financing costs and
leads to earlier rent income.
The mechanical properties of steel make it both sturdy and
lightweight, so smaller foundations are needed and
structures can be built on soils with limited bearing
capacity.
Longer spans and large volumes can be achieved.
Structural system elements are small this means more
space to use.
Re
Re--use, recycling.
recycling.

Economical design of steel members

The labor cost of structural steel run close to 60 percent

and material cost close to 25 percent of total cost.
Economical steel structures are the following:
Open communications between all involved in a particular
project.
Information from the steel companies and steel
warehousers about the sizes and lengths of sections
available.
To smooth out the sizes by selecting many members of
the same sizes although some of them may be slightly
overdesigned.
The cost of erection and fabrication are approximately
the same for light and heavy members (beams should be
spaced as far apart as possible).
Should be painted only if so required by the applicable
specification.

 Repeating the same section will reduce the detailing,

fabrication and erection costs.
For larger sections (particularly the builtbuilt-up ones) the
designer needs to have information about transportation
problems.
Sections should be selected that are reasonably easy to
erect and which have no conditions that will make them
difficult to maintain (bridge members may be periodically
painted).
Every effort should be made to select steel members that
will fit in with the requirements of filling (pipes, ducts,
conduits) of the building.
Economy can be realized when fabrication is minimized.

Cost

Reinforced concrete
Structural steel

Span or
Number of floor

4.9 With other materials

Visible or invisible, steel is paired with many other materials in

construction.
It facilitates suitable combinations to enable both materials to be used to
best effect.

Steel and concrete

Composite construction makes the most of characteristics and advantages
of both materials (floors, bridges and engineering structures). Composite
construction achieves the best tradetrade-off between mechanical performance,
weight saving, aesthetics and cost.

Steel and glass

In conjunction with glass, steel is light and transparent. Spectacular statestate of--the
of
the--art solutions are possible (skylights, atriums, glass facades). Glass
allows natural lighting so the combination saves energy.

Steel and wood

Within the dry construction sector, steel is a natural partner for wood in all
assembly functions (structure, facades, interior finishing, etc.), with warm,
aesthetic and comfortable results.

4.10 Fireproofing
Although structural members are incombustible, their strength is
tremendously reduced at temperatures commonly reached in
fires. Furthermore steel is an excellent heat conductor nonnonfireproofed steel members may transmit enough heat from
burning section or compartment of a building to ignite materials
with which they are in contact in adjoining sections of the
building. When steel is used in combination with other acceptable
materials such as concrete and plaster, building code fire
resistance requirements can be met or exceeded. And the building
may have to include a sprinkler system.
Fire safety analysis.

 Fire safety
Active systems (fire
(fire detection systems, sprinkler systems)
systems)
Passive systems (To
(To design the structure in such a way that it will
achieve to resist in case of fire;
fire; some partitioning;
partitioning; special doors)
doors)
Solution
s for Fire
Fire resistance:
resistance: A period of time.
Protectio
ns
tection
s
Fire protection:
Unprotected Steel

Board Fire Protection

Sprayed Fire Protection

Intumescent Coatings

Composite Floors

SlimFloor System
Systems

Composite HMembers

Concrete filled tubular columns

Shielded Members

Water
filled
structures
W
ater Filled
Structures

4.11 Corrosion
Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when
freely exposed to air and water, and therefore
must be painted periodically.

4.12 Susceptibility to buckling

As the length and slenderness of a compression member is

increased, its danger of buckling increases.

4.13 Fatigue

If steel is subjected to a large number of stress reversals or

even to a large number of variations of tensile stress its
strength may be reduced.

4.14 Brittle fracture

Under certain conditions steel may loose its ductility and

brittle fracture may occur at places of stress
concentrations. (Fatigue type of loadings; very low
temperatures; three
three axial stress conditions.)

5. STEEL STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Structures may be divided into three general categories
Framed structures
Most typical buildings
Shell Type Structures
Tanks
Suspension Type Structures
Bridges,, roofs
Bridges

It is advantageous to use steel structural systems

in the following type of buildings

Buildings on poor soil conditions

Buildings in earthquake regions
Multi storey and high rise buildings
Industrial buildings
Bridges
Car parks
Temporary buildings
Rapid constructions
Restoration and renovation constructions
Repair and retrofitting

High rise buildings

Bridges

Industrial buildings

Car parks

Train station

Stadium

Swimming pool

Hospital

School

Leisure center

Shopping center

Restoration

Repairing

6. SPECIFICATIONS AND LOADS

The design of most structures is controlled by building codes and

specifications.
Governments establish building codes which are actually laws or
ordinances and vary from country to country. Codes specify
design loads, design stresses, construction type, material quality
and other factors.
IBC: International Building Code; EC: Euro Codes;
EN: Euro Norms; BS: British Standards;
DIN: Germen Norms
Organizations publish recommended practices for regional or
national use and their specifications are not legally enforceable.
AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute
AISC: American Institute of Steel Construction
AASHTO: America Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
Turkish Specifications and Building Codes for Steel Structures
TS 498 : Design Loads for Buildings
TS 648 : Building Code for Steel Structures
TS 3357 : Building Code for the Design and Execution of
Welded Connections in Steel Structures
Turkish Earthquake CodeCode-2007

6.1 Loads
Loads are classified according to their character and
duration of application. (Dead Loads, Live Loads,
Environmental Loads.)
Dead Loads: Loads of constant magnitude that remain in one
position (Structural frames own weight and other loads that
are permanently attached to the frame).
Live Loads: Loads that may be change in position and
magnitude. Floor loads, Traffic loads for bridges, Impact
loads, Longitudinal loads, Soil pressure, Hydrostatic
pressure, Thermal force, Centrifugal force.
Environmental Loads: Snow load, Rain load, Wind load,
Earthquake load.
These loads are referred to as service or working loads.
Various combinations of these loads that feasibly occur at
the same time are grouped together.

6.2 Loads and Loading Cases due to (TS 498)

1. First Group loads
For Buildings: Weights, snow load, crane load, dead loads
(loads permanently attached to the structure).
For Bridges: Weights, traffic loads.
2. Second Group loads
For Buildings: Wind load, earthquake load, temperature
effects, mounting loads.
For Bridges: Wind load, earthquake load, temperature
effects, snow load, support friction load, mounting loads.
Loading Case I (LC I) : First Group loads
Loading Case II (LC II): First Group loads +
Second Group loads

7. METHODS OF DESIGN
AISC Specification provides two acceptable methods:

Allowable Stress Design (ASD): Rn/ Ra

(Nominal strength of member)

member)/(Safety factor)
factor) Largest computed force

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD): RnRu

(Resistance factor)x(
factor)x(Nominal
Nominal strength of member)
member) Computed factor force
Nominal strength: Calculated theoretical strength with no safety
factors or resistance factors.
Safety factor () is a number greater than 1.0
Resistance factor () is a number less than 1.0
In general = /1.5

Load factors and safety factors are subject to so many

uncertainties:
Material strength may vary from their assumed
values (creep, corrosion, fatigue).
The method of analysis are often subject to errors.
Hurricanes, earthquake etc. cause conditions difficult
to predict.
The stresses produced during fabrication and erection
are often severe. They may exceed the stresses occur
after the structure is completed.
There are technological changes that affect the
magnitude of live loads. (Dead loads can usually be
estimated quite closely.)
Presence of residual stresses and stress
concentrations, variation of dimensions of the
member cross section and so on.

The European Steel Design Awards

Awards

given by

European Convention for

Constructional Steelwork

(ECCS)

Winner Turkish Projects since 1997

Tatilya-stanbul
Tatilya1997 ECCS Design Award

Glass Pyramid -Antalya

1999 ECCS Design Award

Sabiha Gken AirportAirport-stanbul

2001 ECCS Design Award

Bahar Car Park

ark--stanbul
2003 ECCS Design Award

Bilgi University CampusCampus-stanbul

2005 ECCS Design Award

Adnan Menderes Airport

Airport--zmir
2007 ECCS Design Award

Greengrocers & Fishmongers Market Bursa

2009 ECCS Design Award

REFERENCES

F. Hart, W. Henn,
Henn, H. Sontag,
Sontag, 1978. Multi
Multi--storey Buildings in Steel, Editor of English
Edition:: G. Bernard Godfrey,
Edition
Godfrey, Granada
Granada Publishing, London.
London.
Arda, T.S., 1978. elik at ve Binalarda Rzgar Kart Dzenleri ve Stabilite Balar,
Sakarya Devlet MhendislikMhendislik-Mimarlk Akademisi Yaynlar No.3, stanbul.
Odaba,Y., 1983. Endstri Yaplar ve Hal Konstrksiyonlar, I. elik Yaplar Semineri,
Semineri,
Cilt I, T naat Fakltesi.
Odaba,Y., 1985. elik Endstri Yaplar , II. elik Yaplar Semineri,
Semineri, Cilt II, T naat
Fakltesi.
Martin L.H., Purkiss J. A., 1992. Structural Design of Steelwork, Edward Arnold,
Hodder&Stoughton, London.
Salmon Charles G., Johnson John E., 1996. Steel Structures, Harper&Row, Publishers,
New York.
Galambos T.V., Lin F. J., Johnston B. G., 1996. Basic Steel Design with LRFD, PrenticePrentice-Hall
Inc., NJ.
Spiegel L., Limbrunner G.F., 1997. Applied Structural Steel Design , Prentice Hall, 3rd
Edition.
Les Carnets De LAcier, Aout,2003.
Deren H., Uzgider E., Pirolu F., 2005. elik Yaplar, alayan Kitapevi, BeyoluBeyolu -stanbul.
Coosje van Bruggen, 2005. Frank O. Gehry: Guggenheim Museum Bilbao,The Solomon
Foundation, New York.
Deprem Blgelerinde Yaplacak Binalar Hakknda YnetmelikYnetmelik-DBYBHY
DBYBHY--2007.

Thanks to

ArcelorMittal
Borusan Mannesmann
Cepa
Corus
Galvaelik
Rozak
Tabosan
Trk Yapsal elik Dernei
Yap Endstri Merkezi