Experiment 8 Atomic Spectroscopy Objective ‘The emission and absorption of light energy of particular wavelengths by atoms and mole~ cals is a common phenomenon. The emissions/absorptions are characteristic for each ele- rents atoms and arse from transitions of electrons among the various energy levels ofthe panicular atom under study. The apparatus used to study the wavelengths of light emit- {ed/absorbed by atoms is called a spectroscope. In this experiment, you will frst calibrate a spectroscope (Choice 1), Then you will use the calibrated spectroscope to determine the ‘wavelengths ofthe emission lines of hydrogen and nitrogen (Choice HI) and of a number of metal salts (Choice ID. Choice |. Calibration of the Spectroscope Introduction “The radiant energy emitted by the sun (or other stars) contains all possible wavelengths of clectromagnetic radiation. The portion of this radiation to which the retina of the human eye responds is called the visible light region of the clectromagnetic spectrum. The fact that the radiation emitted by the sun conlains a mixture of radiation wavelengths may be demonstrated by passing sunlight through a prism. A prism dends light, the degree to which light is bent is related to the wavelength of the light. When sunlight (or other “white” light) containing all possible wavelengths is passed through a prism, cach compo- nent color ofthe white light is bent to a different extent by the prism, resulting in the beam of white light being spread out into a complete rainbow of colors. Such a rainbow pattem is called a continuous spectrum Tt was discovered that the use of a narrow siit in the spectroscope between the prism and the source of white light sharpened and improved the quality of spectra produced by a ‘beam of white light. See Figure 18-1 Copyright © Houghton Miffin Co. All rights reserved. 205208 Experiment 18 Atomic Spectroscopy Comauoe space Figure 18-1. The spectrum of “white” light: When light from the sun or from a high-intensity incandescent bulb is passed through a prism, the If / se Pram etenoe see) eeeraaaas ‘component wavelengths are Enc ae spread out into a continuous (te ah ere rainbow spectrum. ‘Most substances will emit light energy if healed (o a high enough temperature. For example, a fireplace poker will glow red if left in the fireplace flame for several minutes. ‘Similarly, neon gas will glow with a bright red color when excited with a sufficiently high electrical voltage; this is made use of in neon signs. When energy is applied to a substance, the atoms present in the substance may absorb some of that energy. Electrons within the atoms of the substance move from their normal positions 10 positions of higher potential energy, farther away from the muclei of the atoms. Later, atoms which have been excited by ‘the application and absorption of cnergy will “relax” and will emit the excess energy they had gained. When atoms re-emit energy, more often than not, at least a portion of this ‘energy is visible as light However, atoms do not emit light energy randomly. In particular, the atoms of a given element do not generally emit a continious spectrum, but rather emit visible radiation at only certain discrete, well-defined, fixed wavelengths. For example, if you have ever spilled ‘common table salt, NaCl, in a flame, you have seen that sodium atoms emit a characteristic yellow /orange wavelength of light. If the light being emitted by a particular element's atoms is passed through a prism and is viewed with a spectroscope, only certain sharp bright-colored lines arc scen in the result- ing spectrum, The positions of these colored lines occur in the corresponding location (wavelength region) as in the spectrum of white light. See Figure 18-2, which illustrates the bright line spectrum of hydrogen / Figure 18-2, The line spectrum of hydrogen. The location of colored lines in Ne \ { the spectrum corresponds to \ are su Fram derecer the location of the same eae Tovrea se) color in the spectrum of atcaen os white light. ‘The fact that a given atom produces only certain fixed bright Jines in its spectrum indicates that the atom can only undergo energy changes of certain fixed, definite amounts Copyright © Houghton Miffin Co. All rights reserved.Experiment 18 Atomic Spectroscopy 207 ‘An atom cannot continuously or randomly emit radiation but can only emit energy come- sponding to definite, regular changes in the energies ofits component electrons. The experi- mental demonstration of bight line spectra implied a regular, fixed electronic microstructure for the atom and led to an enormous amount of research to discover exactly what that microstructure is In later choices of this experiment, you will examine the line spectra of a number of clement, using a simple specttoscope of the sort indicated in Figure 18-3. The spectroscope includes four major features: asi for admitting a narrow, collimated beam of light a prism ot difraction grating that spreads the incident light into its component wavelengths, a fele- scope for viewing the spectrum; and an illuminated reference scale against which the spec- tru may be viewed (as an ai in locating the positions ofthe lines in the spectrum. ia Scate-ituminating @ Figure 18-3. (a) a view of seas the spectroscope to be used. (b) A schematic Tepresentation of the Telescope ‘spectroscope, showing its component parts. When viewed through the telescope, ) the spectrum will appear o superimposed on the numerical scale iit ‘The scale ofthe spectroscope is provided merely as a convenience, and the divisions on the scale are arbitrary. For this reason, the spectroscope must be calibrated before it is used to determine the spectrum of an unknown element. This is accomplished by viewing a known element that produces especially sharp Lines in its spectrum and_whose spectrum has been previously characterized (with the emission wavelengths being known with great prec- sion). The positions on the spectroscope scale of the lines in the spectrum of the known clement are recorded. Then a calibration curve that relates the wavelength of a spectral line of the known element to its position when viewed against the spectroscope scale is prepared ‘This calibration curve may then be used to calculate the wavelengths of emission lines in the ‘spectra of unknown elements when viewed through the same spectroscope under the same conditions. In this option, you will calibrate the spectroscope by viewing the spectrum of mercury. “The spectrum of mercury has been intensively studied. It has several bright lines in the visible region (400-700-nanometer wavelength): 404.7 nm violet [Link] — blue 546.1 nm green 570mm — yellow A calibration graph will then be prepared, with the apparent position of the spectral line om the scale of the spectroscope, plotted against the known wavelength of that spectral line. ‘This calibration graph should be kept if any additional measurements are to be made with the spectroscope. Copyright © Houghton Miffin Co. All rights reserved.208 Experiment 18 Atomic Spectroscopy Safety Precautions ‘© Wear safety glasses a all times inthe laboratory ‘+ In addition to visible light, the mercury vapor lamp emits radiation at ultraviolet ‘wavelengths. Ultraviolet radiation is damaging to the eyes. Wearing your safety slasses while taking readings withthe spectroscope will absorb most ofthis radia- tion, nevertheless, refrain from looking at the source of radiation for any extended period of time. *= The power supply used with the mercury lamp develops a potential of several ‘thousand volts, Do not touch any portion of the power supply, wire leads, or mer- ccury lamp unless the power supply is unplugged from the wall outlet, ‘+ Always unplug the power supply before adjusting the position of the mercury lamp or any other part of the apparatus Apparatus/Reagents Required Procedure Spectroscope with illuminated scale, mercury vapor lamp (discharge tube), high-voltage power pack with lamp holder Record all data and observations directly in your notebook in ink. Check to make sure that the power supply pack is unplugged. Remember that this pack ‘operates at high voltages and is dangerous. Tum on the illuminated scale of the spectroscope, and look through the eyepiece to make ‘sure that the scale is visible but not so brightly lighted as to obscure the mercury spectral Ties. Position the power supply pack containing the mercury vapor lamp so that the lamp is directly in front ofthe slit opening of the spectroscope. With the instructor's permission, plug inthe power supply and tum on the power supply switch to illuminate the mercury lamp. Look through the eyepiece, and adjust the slit opening of the spectroscope so that the mercury vapor spectral ines are as bright and as sharp as possible. If necessary, adjust the illuminated scale of the spectroscope so that the numbered scale divisions are easily read ‘but do not obscure the mercury spectra Lines. Record the color and location on the numbered scale of the spectroscope for each line in ‘the visible spectrum of mercury, Using the line positions you have recorded with the spectroscope and the known wave- Jengths of the emissions of the mercury atom given earlier, construct a calibration curve for the spectroscope using fine-scale graph paper. Plot the observed scale reading for each bright line versus the wavelength ofthe line. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Co. All rights reservedExperiment 18 Atomic Spectroscopy 209 Choice Il. Spectra of Atomic Hydrogen and Nitrogen Introduction ‘Hydrogen is the simplest of the atoms, consisting of a single proton and a single electron ‘The emission spectrum of hydrogen is of interest because this spectrum was the first to be ‘completely explained by a theory of atomic structure, by the Danish sciemist Niels Bohr. ‘As described in Choice 1, we know that atoms absorb and emit radiation as light of fixed, characteristic wavelengths when excited. This absorption and emission of light is now ‘known to correspond to electrons within the atom moving away from the nucleus (energy absorbed) or closer to the nucleus (energy emitted). Atoms emit and absorb energy of only certain wavelengths (bright or dark lines in the spectrum) because electrons do not move randomly away from and toward the nucleus, but may only move between certain fixed, allowed “orbits” cach of which is at a definite fixed distance from the nucleus. When an electron moves from one of the fixed orbits to another ofbit, the attractive force of the ‘ucleus changes by a definite amount that corresponds to a specific change in energy. The quantity of energy absorbed or emitted by an electron in moving from one allowed orbit to another is called a quantum (photon), and the cnergy of the particular quantum is indicated by the wavelength (or frequency) of the light emitted or absorbed by the atom. The enerey ‘ofa photon is given by the Planck equation AE=hy = heh ‘where v isthe frequency of light emitted or absorbed and 2. is the wavelength correspond- ing to that frequency. ‘Bohr postulated that the energy of an electron when it is in a particular orbit was given by the formula En= constant)in® Where 1 is the number of the orbit as counted out from the nucleus (n= 1 means the first mbit, n = 2 means the sccond orbit, ete.) and is called the principal quantum number. ‘The proportionality constant in Bohr’s theory is called the Rydberg constant (given the symbol Ry/) and has the value 2.18 x 10° J. According to Bohr’s theory, if an electron Were to move from an outer orbit (designated a8 route) to an inner orbit (designated by ‘gne), 2 photon of light should be emitted, having energy given by AE = Bier ~Baiter~ Rel(Unigner?) ~ (nous?) ‘The wavelength (?.) of this photon would be given by the Planck formula as De hclAE ‘Bohr performed calculations of wavelengths for various values of the principal quantum ‘number, , and found that the predicted wavelengths from theory agreed exactly with experi- ‘menial wavelengths measured with a spectroscope. Bohr even went so far as to predict emissions by hydrogen atoms in other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum (ultraviolet, infrared) that had not yet been observed experimentally but that were confirmed almost immediately. Bohr's simple atomic theory of an electron moving between fixed orbits helped greatly to explain observed spectra and formed the basis for the detailed modem atomic theory for ‘Copyright © Houghton Miffin Co. All rights reserved.210 Experiment 18 Atomic Spectroscopy ‘more complex atoms with more than one electron. The spectra of larger atoms are consider- ably more complicated than that of hydrogen, but generally a characteristic spectrum is seen. Bohr’s theory for hydrogen accounied on a microscopic basis for the macroscopic phenomena of spectral emission lines. In this experiment, you will measure the wavelengths of the lines inthe emission spec trum of hydrogen with a spectroscope and then determine by calculation to which atomic transition (of the electron between the various orbits) each of these spectral lines corre- sponds. You will also examine the emission spectra of nitrogen, which as a multi-lectron atom is considerably more complicated to interpret. Safety Precautions ‘© Wear safety glasses at all times in the laboratory. ‘ In addition to visible light, the hydrogen lamp and nitrogen lamps emit radiation at ultraviolet wavelengths. Ultraviolet radiation is damaging to the eyes. Wearing, your safety glasses while taking readings with the spectroscope will absorb most Of this radiation. Refrain from looking at the source of radiation for any extended period of time. ‘© The power supply used with the lamps develops a potential of several thousand ‘volts. Do not touch any pottion of the power supply, wire leads, or lamps unless the power supply is unplugged from the wall outlet, ‘© Always unplug the power supply before adjusting the position of t:. lamps or any other part of the apparatus, Apparatus/Reagents Required Procedure Spectroscope with illuminated scale, hydrogen lamp (discharge tube), nitrogen lamp, high- voltage power pack with lamp holder Record all data and observations directly in your notebook in ink. Check to make sure that the power supply pack is unplugged. Remember that this power supply operates at high voltages and is dangerous. ‘Tum on the illuminated scale of the spectroscope. Look through the eyepiece to make sure ‘that the scale is visible but not so brightly lighted as to obscure the hydrogen spectral lines. Position the power supply pack containing the hydrogen vapor lamp so that the lamp is direcly infront of the slit opening of the spectrascope. With the instructor's permission, plug in the power supply and tum on the power supply switch to illuminate the hydrogen lamp. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Co. All rights reserved,Experiment 18 Atomic Spectroscopy 211 Look through the eyepiece, and adjust the slit opening of the spectroscope so that the hydrogen spectral lines are as bright and as sharp as possible, If necessary, adjust the illuminated scale of the spectroscope so that the mumbered scale divisions are easily read but do not obscure the hydrogen spectral lines. Record the color and location on the numbered scale of the spectroscope for each line in the visible spectrum of hydrogen. You should easily observe red, blue-green, and violet lines. A second very faint violet line may also be visible if the room lighting and ilumi- nated scale lights are not too bright, Use the calibration plot prepared in Choice 1 for mercury vapor to determine the wave- lengths of the lines in the hydrogen emission spectrum. Look up the true wavelengths of these lines in your textbook or a chemical handbook, and calculate the percent error in the determination of each line’s wavelength, ‘Use the equations provided in the introduction to this choice to calculate the predicted ‘wavelengths in nanometers (according to Bohr's theory) from the electronic transitions in the hydrogen atom corresponding to the following: n= 3 += 2.n=4 + n=2; n=3 + n=2:n=6 > n=2 How do these predicted wavelengths correspond to those you ‘have measured for hydrogen? ‘Tum off and unplug the power pack containing the hydrogen lamp. Position the power pack containing the nitrogen lamp in front of the slit opening of the spectroscope. Adjust the spectroscope and scale, and record the location of the bright lines in the nitrogen spec- ‘rum. A portion of the emission spectrum of nitrogen appears as a band of several colors. Record the position of this band on the spectroscope scale. Using the calibration curve prepared in Choice I, determine the wavelengths of the bright lines in the nitrogen spec ‘rum, and also the approximate wavelength range covered by the band Choice Ill, Emission Lines of Some Metallic Elements Introduction ‘A number of common metallic clements emit light strongly in the visible light region when ions of the metals are excited. The spectra can be studied using the same sort of simple spectroscope as has been used in Choices I and Il ‘A mumber of metallic elements from Groups IA and IA have especially bright emission lines in the visible light region. The emissions are so strong and characteristically colored that these elements can often be recognized by the gross color they impart when aspirated into a bumer flame, even without use of a spectroscope. For example, lidhium ions impart a red color to a bumer flame, sodium ions a yellow/orange color, potassium ions a violet color, calcium ions a brick red color, strontium ions a brighter red color, and barium ions a ‘green color. Upon examination with the spectroscope, it is noted that the spectra of these fons contain several additional lines, but generally the brightest line in the spectrum when ‘viewed through the spectroscope corresponds to the gross color imparted to a flame when the spectroscope is not used. Naturally, when several of these ions are present together in a sample (as happens with real samples very commonly), one color may mask another 30 that direct visual identification of the ions may not be possible. In this case, only a calibrated spectroscope can determine what elements are present. This is done by comparing the posi- Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Co. All rights reserved.212 Experiment 18 ‘Atomic Spectroscopy tion of lines in the spectrum of the unknown mixture with the position of lines in known single samples of the fons in question. In this Choice, you will excite the ions of each of the elements listed earlier, using a ‘Bunsen bumer. You will observe both the gross color imparted to the flame and the spectral lines emitted by the elements as viewed brough the spectroscope. You will then determine ‘hat elements of those tested are present in an unknown mixture. ‘Two altemative procedures may be available for introducing the metal ion samples into ‘the bumer flame. Inthe first method, a wire loop is used to pick up a drop of metal solution, and the drop is then placed into the flame for vaporization. This method is simple and requires litte equipment, but it only produces a brief burst of color before the sample evapo rates completely. This makes it difficult for one person to both introduce the sample and record the spectrum, The second method uses a spray bottle t0 imiroduce a finc mist of sample solution ino the flame. This method allows fora longer lifetime for the color of the ion in the flame but requires separate sprayers for each of the ons (because of the difficulty in cleaning the sprayer between samples). Safety * Wear safety glases at al times in the nboratory Precautions —« Some of the metal salts used in this experiment are ‘orlc. Wash your hands after ‘using them. If the spray method is used, wash down the lab bench to remove all traces of the metal salts + Avoid having the bumer flame too close tothe spectroscope, to avoid damaging the apparatus © 6M HCI can bum skin and clothing, Exercise caution in its use, and inform the instructor of any spills. Apparatus/Reagents Required Spectroscope with illuminated scale; bumer; nichrome wire or spray bottles; 6 Mf HCI; 0.10 ‘M solutions of the following metal chlorides: lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, and strontium; unknown solution containing one of these ions; unknown mixture containing ‘two of these ions Procedure Record all data and observations directly in your notebook in ink. ‘Your instructor will tell you which method for introducing the metal ions into the flame to use. In either case, you will be determining the spectra of solutions of lithium chloride, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, and strontium chloride. If the wire method is to be used, obtain several 6-inch lengths of nichrome wire and a small amount of 6 HCI (Caution!) Bend the last quarter-inch of each wire into a small Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Co. All ights reservedExperiment 18 Atomic Spectroscopy 213 Joop for picking up the sample solutions. Dip the loops into 6 Af HCl to remove any oxides present, rinse in distilled water, and then heat in the oxidizing portion of a bumer flame until no color is imparted to the flame by the wires. If the spray method is to be used, using the sink, check to make sure that the sprayers deliver a very fine mist. Ifthe sprayer nozzle is adjustable, ry adjusting the nozdle to improve the character ofthe spray. Ifthe nozzle camnot be adjusted, consult your instructor fora method of cleaning the sprayer. Set up a laboratory burner directly in front of the slit of the spectroscope but far enough away from the spectroscope to avoid damaging the instrument. Adjust the flame of the bbumer so that it is as hot as possible. Adjust the illuminated scale of the spectroscope so that approximate positions of the special lines can be noted (exact measurements will not bbe made), Using the wire method, introduce a drop of one of the metal ion solutions into the oxidiz~ ing portion of the flame and note the gross color imparted to the flame by the solution. ‘Then introduce a second drop of the same metal ion solution into the flame while looking af the flame through the eyepiece of the spectroscope. Note the color, intensity, and ap- proximate scale position of the brightest few lines in the metal ion’s spectrum. It may be necessary to repeat the introduction of a drop of the metal ion solution to the flame to permit recording of all the spectral lines shown by the metal ion Using the spray method, spray a fine mist of one of the metal ion solutions into the flame and note the gross color imparted to the flame by the metal ion. Then while looking through the eyepiece of the spectroscope, spray additional bursts of the same metal ion solution into the flame, noting the color, intensity, and approximate scale postion of the brightest few lines in the metal ion’s spectrum. Repeat the determinations (by cither method) using the other metal ion samples, If using the wire method, use a new length of wire for each successive sample. If using the spray method, alow the bumer to heat for a few minutes between samples to make sure thatthe previous sample has been evaporated completly When each of the known samples of metal ions has been determined, obtain an unknown sample containing just one of the metal ions. Determine the spectrum of the unknown sample, and by maiching the color, intensities, and positions of the spectral Lines, identify the unknown sample, Obtain an unknown sample containing a mixture of two of the metal ions. Determine the spectrum of the mixture, noting the color, intensity, and position of all the brightest lines in the spectrum. Compare the spectrum of the mixture with the spectra of each of the individ- ual known ions, and determine which ions are most likely to be present in the unknown mixture Copyright © Houghton Miffin Co. All rights reserved,Name ‘Section Lab Instructor. Date, exreriment18 Atomic Spectroscopy PRE-LABORATORY QUESTIONS CHOICE |. CALIBRATION OF THE SPECTROSCOPE. 1. Given the wavelengths and colors of the major mercury emission lines listed in the introduction to this experiment, construct a graph (on a sheet of graph paper from the end of this manual) which will approximate the spectrum to be determined, Lay out the horizontal axis of the graph in terms of the ‘wavelength of the lines (in nanometers), and make the vertical axis about 2 inches high to ‘approximate the appearance of the lines to be measured. Using colored pens that correspond to those colors listed, sketch in the emission lines. Compare your sketch of the spectrum to the actual spectrum recorded. Attach your sketch to this page. 2. What are the approximate wavelengths (in nanometers) in the spectrum of visible sunlight that cor- respond to the following colors? Red as Yellow Green Blue 3 ‘What are the frequencies (in Hz) corresponding to the wavelengths you have listed ? CHOICE Il. SPECTRA OF ATOMIC HYDROGEN AND NITROGEN 1. The spectral lines observed in the visible spectrum of hydrogen arise from transitions from upper states back to the n = 2 principal quantum level. Calculate the predicted wavelengths for the spectral transitions of the hydrogen atom from the m = 6 to m = 2, for the m= $ ton = 2, for the m= 4 ton = 2, and for the n = 3 to n = 2 levels in atomic hydrogen, Copyright © Houghton Miffiin Co. All rights reserved 215216 Experiment 18 Pre-Laboratory Questions 2 Why is it not possible to so casily interpret the spectrum of a polyelectronic atom (such as nitrogen in this experiment)? CHOICE II, EMISSION LINES OF SOME METALLIC ELEMENTS. 1. Use a chemical dictionary or encyclopedia to find the distinction between atomic emission and absorption spectroscopy. 2. Atomic spectroscopy is used in police laboratories for the identification of samples collected at crime soenes—bullet fragments, for example. A bullet typically might consist of an alloy of several metals (copper, zinc, lead, et.). How would you expect the atomic spectrum of a mixture of elements to com- pare (o the individual spectra of the constituent elements in the sample? Would you expect the spectra of a mixture to be a superimposition of the individual spectrum, or would you expect the spectral ‘missions of one atom to influence the spectrum of another atom? Discuss. Copyright © Houghton Miffiin Co. All rights reserved.Lab instructor Date, experent18 Atomic Spectroscopy ‘CHOICE |. CALIBRATION OF THE SPECTROSCOPE RESULTS/OBSERVATIONS Description of the spectrum Lines observed: Color Location on spectroscope scale Attach your graph to this report sheet. Copyright © Houghton Miffin Co. All rights reserved. a7218 Experiment 18 Choice | Report QUESTIONS 1. What isthe purpose ofthe slit in the spectroscope? 2 Why is mercury used to calibrate the spectroscope? 3. Why should you no look atthe emissions from the mercury tube for a profonged time period? Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Co. All rights reserved.Lab instructor Date, exerment18 Atomic Spectroscopy CHOICE Il. SPECTRA OF ATOMIC HYDROGEN AND NITROGEN RESULTS/OBSERVATIONS. ‘Hydrogen Emission Spectrum Description of the spectrum Lines observed: Color Location on spectroscope scale Wavelengths of the lines (from calibration graph, Choice 1) Color Wavelength Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Co. All rights reserved. 219220 Experiment 18 Choice I! Report Calculate the percent crror in the determination of the wavelengths (comparing the wavelengths you have ‘determined with those given in your textbook). Color Percent error in wavelength ‘Nitrogen Emission Spectrum Description of the spectrum Lines observed: Color Location on spectroscope scale Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Co. All rights reserved,Experiment 18 Choice Il Report 221 Wavelengths ofthe lines (rom calibration graph, Choice 1) Color Wavelength QUESTIONS 1. In addition to the visible lines in the hydrogen emission spectrum determined earlier, atomic hydrogen also cmits short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation (for example, sunburns arc a result of such radiation from the sun). Ultraviolet emissions arise from transitions back to the ground state (n ~ 1) level. Beginning with the n = 6 level, calculate the wavelengths for the ultraviolet emissions of atomic hydrogen. 2. As you observed the spectrum of atomic nitrogen, you may have noticed that part ofthe spectrum was Continuous: that is, in one portion of the spectrum there was a hand of color rather than a sharp line ‘What do you think might account for such a continuous spectral region? Copyright © Houghton Miffiin Co. All rights reserved.Lab Instructor. Date, experiment 18 Atomic Spectroscopy CHOICE Ill. EMISSION LINES OF SOME METALLIC ELEMENTS: RESULTS/OBSERVATIONS Which method did you use for introducing the metal ion samples? Metal ion Gross color Lines observed ui Na K ca sr Ba ‘Unknown 1 (single) Unknown 2 (double) ID number of Unknown 1 Identity? ID number of Unknown 2 Identity? Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Co. All rights reserved. 2232 224 Experiment 18 Choice Ill Report ‘QUESTIONS: ‘Why were spectra observed only for alkali and alkaline earth metal cation solutions (and not cations ‘of other groups)? Of the metal cations tested, sodium usually gives the brightest and most persistent color to the flame. ‘What problems would this introduce if a real mixture containing both sodium and other cations were to be analyzed by the technique used in this experiment? How could the problems be solved? Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Co. All rights reserved.