Naming Construction and Patterns
By Laurel staff
This article covers the construction and patterns in names for the vast majority of European languages. In some cases, the best we can do is provide links to other
articles that discuss these language in detail. However, for most of these languages, this article is an easy, no-photocopy reference for how to put together the
name elements you may find in other articles or books into a well-formed, period name. It also gives a comprehensive overview of the types of bynames that are
known in each language.
Bynames in many of these languages require grammatical changes to elements. Those changes are not explained here; refer to the listed sources for instructions on
creating the correct forms. Each element within this construction must still be documented. Any grammatical changes must be documented as well.
A note on using these tables:
In the tables below, name patterns are written using a consistent system:
N is the given name of the person bearing the name in the nominative case.
B, C, etc. are the given names of relatives or ancestors of the person bearing the name.
X is used to indicate a place name or region; Y is used to indicate a generic toponym (e.g., 'the woods' or 'the dell'); Z is used to indicate the charge or
other name in an inn-sign type location (e.g., star or lion).
Unmarked means "using the element location, father's name, etc. in an unmodified form as a byname;" marked for bynames means using a term such
as "son" or "daughter" often with a modified form of the father's name. Using a modified form of the father's name without any other marker is labeled as
"genitive alone."
In "order," byname means "any byname described to the left." Pat = patronymic byname; Loc = locative byname
For example, N filius B would be 'N, the son of B' or 'N, B's son'. N de X would be "N from X".
Boxes that are unmarked or patterns not listed require further documentation to use that pattern. "Rare" means that such names are sufficiently rare that a
constructed, as opposed to attested version, of such a byname generally requires the help of an expert in that language to determine if it is plausible.
Arabic
Arabic
Double
Given
Names
No
Locative
Patronymic
Other relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Dictus
Double
Bynames
Order
Adjectival; al[adjectival
form of place
name].
For men ibn B
"son of B"
For women bint B
"daughter of B"
Multi-generational
patronymics; Ab B
and Umm B (where
B is the childs
name)
al-[occupation
or description
or ethnic
group]
No
Yes
Multiple possible
variations; see articles
below for more
information
Notes: Locative and descriptive bynames must match the gender of the person described; see articles below for more details.
Diacritics (long marks, emphatic marks, etc.) may be used or omitted as long as it is done consistently.
Additional Information: Juliana de Luna, "Arabic Names from al-Andalus" ([Link] and Da'ud ibn Auda, "Period
Arabic Names and Naming Practices" ([Link]
Baltic
Lithuanian,
Latvian, etc.
Double
Given
Names
Late; 14th
cen. and after
Locative
Patronymic
Other
relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Yes; N B
snus
Dictus
Double
Bynames
Late; 14th
cen. and after
Order
given+patronymic
given+alias+given
given+alias+given+pat
Note: In late period, some other family names are found, are beyond the scope of this article, and so must be documented individually.
Dutch
Dutch,
Frisian, etc.
Double
Given
Names
No
Locative
Patronymic
Other
relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Dictus
Double
Bynames
Order
Phrase; van X, van
den Y or van derY,
Marked;
genitive alone,
or unmarked
(see notes)
Brother, wife
May use article
de/den/der/die
or may omit it
Early (see
Latinized
names for
details)
Yes; second
byname
usually a
locative
given+byname
given+patronymic+loc
Notes: Bynames based on relationship can be formed with Latinized particles, or with their Dutch counterparts, such as sone/soen/zoen/zone son, broeder
brother, dochter daughter, and wijf wife (usually with the relatives name in the genitive case). Bynames of relationship are also formed with the father's name
unmodified or placed in the genitive form.
Additional Information: Aryanhwy merch Catmael, "Names from Dutch Records Between 1584-1585"
([Link]
English/Welsh
Old English
Middle/
Early
Double
Given
Names
No
Late
Locative
Patronymic
Phrase (t X or of X)
Marked,
unmarked
Marked, genitive
alone, unmarked
All forms: Phrase (de
X, of X, atte Y, de
Other
relationship
Matronymic,
many others,
Descriptive/
Occupational
Dictus
Rare
Yes; using
Cognomento
Yes; marked
Yes, may use
article the/le
Double
Bynames
Order
given+byname
Yes; all
patterns
given+byname
given+byname+loc
la/del Y); unmarked,
adjectival, inn sign
(atte Z, of the Z)
Modern
English
Anglicized
Irish
No
Welsh
Late
Marked, multigeneration
Phrase, unmarked
Phrase (as in English),
unmarked
Scots
Marked,
unmarked,
multiple
Marked (with
Mac or as in
English),
unmarked
marked and
unmarked
or omit it.
Clan names
Rare
late
(generally
unmarked)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
As in English
only
given+patronym+descrip
given+byname+byname
given+byname
given+pat+pat
given+patronym+clan
given+byname
given+pat+pat
given+pat+ loc
given+pat+pat
given+pat+descriptive
Notes: Old English: Patronymics take form of X sunu/sune or Xdohtor (X is father's name in genitive); they must match the given name's gender. Alternately, they
may follow the Latinized patterns. Locatives use t or of followed by the placename in dative form. See the introduction to Reaney and Wilson A Dictionary of
English Surnames for more details.
Middle/Early Modern English: Marked patronymics may use Fitz X or Xson; women may use these or use Xdaughter. These forms may all use the father's name
unmodified; Xson and Xdaughter may also use the possessive form. Alternately, they may follow the Latinized patterns. Late period family names tend to drop
articles and prepositions. See the introduction to Reaney and Wilson A Dictionary of English Surnames for more details.
Anglicized Irish: For more details of how patronymic bynames are marked Mari ingen Briain meic Donnchada, "Names Found in Anglicized Irish Documents" (
[Link]
Welsh: For more details, see Tangwystyl verch Morgant Glasvryn "A Simple Guide to Constructing 13th Century Welsh Names"
([Link] and "A Simple Guide to Constructing 16th Century Welsh Names" ([Link]
Scots: See Black Surnames of Scotland for more details.
French
Frankish
French
Double
Given
Names
Locative
Patronymic
Other
relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Dictus
Double Bynames
Order
Late
Phrase (see
notes),
unmarked, or
inn sign name
Marked,
unmarked are
more
common
widow,
other
Yes; may use
article le, la, l', les
or un/une or omit
it
Yes; usually
combining
surnames
using dit
Yes; second
byname is usually
locative; double
surnames are rare
given+by
given+byname+locative
given+byname dit
byname
Occitan/
Provenal
Late
Phrase (see
notes),
unmarked
Marked,
unmarked
widow,
other
Yes; may use
article le, la, li, l',
les or un/une or
omit it
Yes; usually
combining
surnames
using alias
Yes; but rare for
men; second name
usually locative
given+byname
given+byname+locative
given+byname alias
byname
Notes: All patterns in Frankish must be documented.
Acute accents may be written or omitted, as long as they are used consistently. Other diacritics must be documented to be used, as they were rare in period.
Capitalization patterns are inconsistent, but combinations of lower and uppercase elements must be documented.
French: Locatives may be derived from place names, in the form de X (or d'X, if X starts with a vowel); from generic toponyms, with du X, de la X, or des X; or
from signs, with au Z, la Z, or aus/aux Z.
Occitan: Marked locatives look like those from French; inn sign names have not been found in Occitan to date.
Gaelic
Double
Given
Names
Locative
Pictish
Oghamic
(c.500-c.700)
No
Old/Middle
Gaelic
(before c.1200)
No
Rare
Early Modern
Gaelic
(after c.1200)
No
Rare
Scots Gaelic
No
Rare
Patronymic
Other relationship
Marked; mac B or filius
B "son of B";
filia B "daughter of B"
Marked; maqqas B
"son of b";
inigena B "daughter of
B
Marked; mac B "son of
B";
ingen B "daughter of
B"
Marked; mac B "son of
B";
inghean B "daughter of
B"
marked; mac B "son of
B";
ingen or inghean B
"daughter of B"
nephew, nepos B
Clan affiliation;
two-generation
patronymics; "wife
of" for women
Clan affiliation;
two-generation
patronymics; "wife
of" for women
Two-generation
patronymics; "wife
of" for women
Descriptive/
Occupational
Dictus
Double
Bynames
Order
given+by
Descriptive
No
Descriptive;
rarely
occupational
No
Descriptive;
rarely
occupational
No
Descriptive;
rarely
occupational
No
given+byname
Multigenerational,
descriptive and
patronymic
Multigenerational,
descriptive and
patronymic
Multigenerational,
descriptive and
patronymic
Varied; see articles
below
Varied; see articles
below
given+pat
given+descrip+pat
given+pat+descrip
given+pat+pat
Notes: Pictish: Please refer to Tangwystl verch Mogrant Glasvryn, "A Consideration of Pictish Names" ([Link]
Oghamic: Please refer to Mari Elspeth nic Bryan, Index of Names in Irish Annals ([Link]
Old/Middle Gaelic: For appropriate spellings, refer to Mari Elspeth nic Bryan , Index of Names in Irish Annals ([Link]
For structure, please refer to Effric Neyn Ken3ocht Mcherrald, "Quick and Easy Gaelic Names" ([Link]
Early Modern Gaelic: Please refer to Effric Neyn Ken3ocht Mcherrald, "Quick and Easy Gaelic Names"
([Link] for more details on Gaelic names.
Scots Gaelic: Please refer to Effric Neyn Ken3ocht Mcherrald, "A Simple Guide to Constructing 12th Century Scottish Gaelic Names"
([Link]
All patronymics are created using the genitive form of the fathers name. Byname elements may need to have their spelling modified to soften the pronunciation
(lenited) or change the grammar. For guidance on when lenition is required, please refer to Effric Neyn Ken3ocht Mcherrald, "The Spelling of Lenited Consonants
in Gaelic" ([Link]
Accents may be used or omitted as long as it is done consistently. Capitalization is inconsistent in period records, but must match a period pattern.
German
German
Double
Given
Names
Yes
Locative
Patronymic
Other
relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Dictus
Double Bynames
Order
Adjectival
(common),
marked, and inn
signs
Unmarked,
rarely
marked
Women may use
feminine form
(see notes)
Yes; usually
without
articles
Early (see
Latinized
names)
Rare; second
byname is usually
locative or
descriptive
given+byname
given+byname+locative
given+byname+descript
Notes: Locatives based on place names use the forms von X; generic toponymics use vom Y, or another form of der; the form de X is found before about 1300.
Locatives based on generic toponyms, house names or inn-sign names use the form zum Z.
Women commonly used a feminized form of their husbands or fathers surname, either by adding the suffix in/-yn, or used a genitive form ending in s/-z or -en.
Unmodified surnames were also used. Further discussion of womens bynames can be found in Aryanhwy merch Catmael, "Women's Surnames in 15th- and 16thCentury Germany" ([Link]
Greek: Please refer to Bardas Xiphias, "Personal Names of the Aristocracy in the Roman Empire During the Later Byzantine Era"
([Link] All patterns documented in this article are registerable.
Hungarian/Romanian
Double
Given
Names
Hungarian
Romanian
Locative
Patronymic
Other
relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Adjectival
(vernacular), phrase
(de X), unmarked
(Latinized)
Phrase, adjectival (see
article)
Unmarked,
rarely marked
(as B-fi)
metronymics
(late period);
wife (see notes)
Yes; without
articles
byname+given (vernacular)
given+byname (Latinized)
Yes
given+byname
See notes
Dictus
Double
Bynames
Order
Notes: Hungarian: Women often have marital bynames that add ne to her husband's complete name. See Walraven van Nijmegen, "Hungarian Names 101"
([Link] or various articles by Kolosvari Arpadne Julia in the KWHSS Proceedings for more details.
Romanian: See Aryanhwy merch Catmael, "Names from the Royal Lines of Moldavia and Wallachia" ([Link]
for more details. The article does not document patronymic bynames, but that appears to be an artifact of the (royal) data.
Iberian
Castilian
(Spanish)
Catalan
Basque
Portuguese
Double
Given
Names
Late
Locative
Patronymic
Yes
Phrase (de X, del Y
or de la Y),
adjectival
Unmarked or
marked as in
Castilian
Phrase (de X, da X,
do X, d'X)
Marked (see
notes),
unmarked
Other
relationship
Phrase (de X; del Y Marked (see
or de la Y),
notes),
unmarked; adjectival unmarked
Descriptive/
Occupational
Dictus
Yes; usually
without article
viuda
"widow"
Yes; usually
without article
Yes; usually
without article
alias
with two
bynames
Double
Bynames
Order
Yes; second
byname usually
locative
given+byname
given+pat+locative
given+byname+locative
given+pat+descriptive
given+byname
given+given+byname
given+byname+locative
Yes; second
byname usually
locative
Yes; second
byname usually
locative
given+byname
given+pat+locative
Notes: Castilian: A patronymic byname may be Latinized (filius B) or in the vernacular, usually formed by adding ez to the father's name (and dropping terminal
o). Patronyms may also be formed by using an unmodified version of the fathers name. For more details see Elsbeth Anne Roth, "16th Century Spanish Names"
([Link] or Juliana de Luna "Spanish Names from the Late 15th Century" ([Link]
Catalan: For further details see Aryanhwy merch Catmael, "Catalan Names from the 1510 census of Valencia"
([Link] especially the surname section.
Basque: All patterns in Basque must be documented; Basque names often closely resemble Castilian or Catalan names.
Portuguese: A patronymic byname may be Latinized (filius B) or in the vernacular, usually formed by adding ez to the father's name (and dropping terminal o).
Patronyms may also be formed by using an unmodified version of the fathers name or as de B or d'B (when the father's given name starts with a vowel). See
Aryanhwy merch Catmael, "Portuguese Names from Lisbon, 1565" ([Link] for more details.
Italian
Italian
Double
Given
Names
Yes;
triple
names
very late
Locative
Patronymic
Other
relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Dictus
Double Bynames Order
Phrase (see
notes),
unmarked,
Latinized
Marked (as di
B), multigenerational,
unmarked,
Latinized
Family
names (see
notes),
matronymics
(as di B)
Yes; rarely use
articles
Early,
Latinized
only
Yes; patronymic
bynames in these
patterns are
generally marked
with di
given+byname
given+pat+pat
given+pat+family
given+pat+locative
given+family+locative
Notes: Italian is incredibly variable in period, with names from Venice, Tuscany, and the south all significantly different. For Venice, see Juliana de Luna,
"Names from 16th Century Venice" ([Link] For Tuscany see Juliana de Luna, "Names in 15th Century
Florence and her Dominions: the Condado" ([Link] and Aryanhwy merch Catmael, "Names from Arezzo, Italy, 13861528" ([Link] For the south, see Aryanhwy merch Catmael "Names from 15th Century Naples"
([Link] Latinized patronymic bynames usually are just the father's name in the genitive form, without
filius/filiaI.
Locative bynames in the northern and central areas normally take the form da X, but de X and di X are rarely found. Generic toponymics take the form
della/dalla/dello/dallo Y. In the south, de X and di X are far more common.
Family names typically modify a patronym or byname by removing the last vowel (if there is one) and adding i. Unmodified forms are found as well.
Jewish
Hebrew
Vernacular
Double
Given
Names
No
Locative
Patronymic
Other relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Tribe name (men
only), like ha Levi
(see notes)
Marked; multigenerational
(see notes)
ha [noun], feminized
for women
(see notes)
Dictus
Double Bynames Order
Multi-generation
patronymic
Multi-generation
patronymic
given+byname
given+pat+pat
given+byname
Notes: Jews lived in a location where a vernacular was spoken (German, Arabic, etc.) Men generally had a Hebrew language name and a vernacular name. The
vernacular name may be the equivalent of their Hebrew name or an unrelated vernacular name. Women generally had vernacular names only (often the same as
local naming pool).
Hebrew: Patronymic bynames are formed using ben B "son of B," and bat B (Sephardic) or basB (Ashkenazic) "daughter of B"
Vernacular: Vernacular bynames often follow the Hebrew forms (so mostly patronymic), but are generally written following the standards for the local vernacular.
Occasionally, the particles are transliterated from the Hebrew (e.g., "N filius B ben C" in a Latin document). Other kinds of bynames (especially locative bynames
and the byname meaning "Jew" in the vernacular) are found as well.
Latinized: Latinized names are not a single thing; they must follow the rules of the naming pool from which they are taken.
Bynames based on relationships can be marked with Latinized particles such as filius 'son', filia 'daughter', uxor 'wife', and relicta 'widow'. These are usually
followed by the Latinized form of the person in the genitive case, though sometimes the name is not declined.
Locatives can use the preposition de 'of/from,' despite the fact that such usage was not proper in classical Latin. In this case, the locative may be Latinized, but is
often left in its vernacular form.
In the early Middle Ages, a second given name is often used as a byname; it is preceded by a term like alias, dictus, or cognomento. In later usage, two bynames
will often be connected by these same terms.
Mongol: Mongol names are quite different in structure from European names. All patterns documented in Baras-aghur Naran, "On the Documentation and
Construction of Period Mongolian Names" ([Link] are registerable.
North Slavic
Double
Given
Names
Polish
Locative
Patronymic
Other
relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Phrase, adjectival
(see notes)
Marked, Unmarked
(see notes)
Brother,
wife, widow
Rare
Dictus
Double Bynames
Order
Yes; patronymic +
locative (N B-wna z X).
given+byname
given+pat+locative
Czech
Notes: Polish: In Polish, i/y/j switches are common, and the use of accents is inconsistent. Names will be registered with or without accents as long as they are
consistent.
In Polish, bynames based on relationships can be marked with Latinized particles or with their Polish vernacular equivalents, such as B syn 'B's son', B brat 'B's
brother', B ona 'B's wife', and B wdowa 'B's widow'. Alternately, the relationship could be indicated by a suffix added to their relative's name, such as
Bwic(z)/Bwicc ('son of B') or Byk/Bik ('little B', forming a diminutive). Women's bynames use feminine forms. Most frequently, patronyms are changed by adding
the diminutive suffix ina/-yna, or by addingwa (married name) or wna (maiden name), making Bina or Bwa. What look like double given names may well
be unmarked patronymic bynames.
Locative bynames in Polish-language documents normally take the preposition z/ze 'from/of', followed by the place name in the genitive case. Alternately, an
adjectival form can be created by adding ski for men or ska for women to the location's name in its grammatically required form.
Czech: All patterns in Czech must be documented. Academy of Saint Gabriel report 3244 ([Link] gives some leads for documenting
Czech forms.
Persian: Persian name structures are quite different from European name structures. All patterns found in Ursula Georges, "Persian Masculine Names in the
Nafah.t al-uns" ([Link] are registerable. The most common structure is a single given name followed by a locative
byname derived from the adjectival form of a placename (usually adding to the placename for both men and women). Descriptive bynames are also found. A
few examples of women's bynames (all locative) can be found in Aryanhwy merch Catmael and Ursula Georges, "Persian Feminine Names from the Safavid
Period" ([Link]
Romany: Romany are known to have used two names: a private name used only in their community, and a vernacular use name, used in interactions with locals.
We do not currently have evidence of the elements or structure of private names before 1600; without such evidence they cannot be registered. In general, forming
a name appropriate for the desired region/language where a Romany persona is living (e.g., "A from X") follows period usage.
Russian/East Slavic: All patterns found in Paul Wickenden of Thanet's "A Dictionary of Period Russian Names" ([Link] and "Locative
Bynames in Medieval Russia" ([Link] are registerable.
Russian
Other
Double
Given
Names
Yes; one
Christian,
one Slavic
Locative
Patronymic
Other
relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Adjectival,
rarely other
forms
(see notes)
Marked (see
notes)
Matronymics,
wife
Yes
Dictus
Double Bynames
Order
Yes; multiple patronymics
(or patronymic from
father's whole name)
(see notes)
Notes: Russian: The construction of Russian bynames is complicated; see Paul Wickenden of Thanet's "A Dictionary of Period Russian Names"
([Link] for structures both of individual bynames and for names as a whole. His and "Locative Bynames in Medieval Russia"
([Link] is also useful for constructing locative bynames.
Other East Slavic languages, like Ukranian and Belorussian, follow similar patterns to Russian, but are beyond the scope of this article; their formation needs to be
individually documented.
Scandinavian
Old Norse/
Old Icelandic
Swedish,
Danish,
Finnish,
Norwegian,
Icelandic, etc.
Double
Given
Names
No
Locative
Patronymic
Other
relationship
Descriptive/
Occupational
Phrase,
adjectival;
see notes
Marked; -son or dttir added to the
genitive of fathers
name
Two-generation
patronymic; Bson
Csonar, wife
(Bkona)
Descriptive,
occupational
are rare
Phrase,
adjectival;
see notes
Marked; Bson or
Bsen using genitive
of fathers name;
see notes for
feminine
Wife (using the
genitive form of
the husband's
name)
Rare
Dictus
Double
Bynames
Order
Descriptive
byname +
patronymic or
two-generation
patronymic
given+by
given+descriptive+pat
given+pat+descriptive
given+pat+pat
given+by
Notes: For Old Norse/Old Icelandic, see Geirr Bassi Haraldsson's The Old Norse Name and in Lindorm Eriksson's "The Bynames of the Viking Age Runic
Inscriptions" are registerable. See Lindorm's article for more information on locative bynames.
Accents and other diacritics (like , , and {o,}) may be used or omitted, as long as the system is consistent.
For Old Norse/Old Icelandic, by precedent, prepended bynames (nicknames that precede the given name) are capitalized, but nicknames that follow the given
name are not.
For later Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Danish, Finnish, Norwegian, Icelandic, etc., the feminine forms of patronymics are variable. Swedish forms include
Bdotter, Bdotther, Bdottir, and Bdatter, while Danish forms include Bdother, Bdotter, Bdaatter, Bdaater, and Bdaather. Other forms must be documented.
Locative bynames take the form i X in Swedish, af X in Danish, for example. The placenames must be grammatically correct forms to follow those prepositions.
For details of construction in Swedish, see [Link] Swedish: Wife (using genitive form of husband's given or full name)
South Slavic (Serbian, Croatian, etc.): All patterns must be documented. Our sources for South Slavic names are quite limited. One useful source is Walraven
van Nijmegen, "Early Croatian Given Names" ([Link] which documents the pattern of a single given name followed by
a single patronymic byname which is either the father's name unchanged or a construction formed by adding ov, -ovic. Other sources suggest ic may sometimes
be used to construct a patronymic byname.
Turkish: Turkish names are quite different from European names; they are somewhat like Arabic names, but do not follow all Arabic patterns. One useful source
is Ursula Georges, "Sixteenth-Century Turkish Names" ([Link]