Momentum Transfer
Lecture 3: Equations of Change for
Isothermal Systems
Transport Phenomena
From last week
Shell balances for isothermal systems
Boundary conditions
Where shell balances cannot be applied
Solutions for class examples on Blackboard
Go through tutorial questions to get more understanding
Shell balances as introduction to equations of continuity and
momentum
(i.e. TP is not all about shell balances, just in case you were
wondering.)
Relevant Learning
Equations of change:
Continuity
Motion
Significance, usage, special cases (inviscid
and creeping flows)
Equation of Continuity
[Mass accumulation] = [Mass in] [Mass out]
Substitute all equations
xyz yz vx x yz vx
t
xz v y xz v y
y
y y
xy vz z xy vz
x x
z z
Divide by xyz, and as x, y, z 0, we get:
vx v y vz
dy
dz
t
dx
Equation of Continuity
v x v y v z
dy
dz
t
dx
Divergence of v
Local change of with time at a fixed point of x, y, and
z.
PARTIAL time derivative
Equation of Continuity
What happens if we (as observers) float along with the
velocity of the flowing stream?
Derivative that follows the motion
Partial time derivative (as before) + velocity x gradient of property
Total time change of a quantity as observed by an observer
following the motion of the fluid
d
d
d
d
D
vx
vy
vz
dt
dx
dy
dz
Dt
SUBSTANTIAL time derivative
Equation of Continuity
Substantial time derivative of ?
vx v y vz
t
dy
dz
dx
d
.v
dt
v x v y v z
vy
v z
v x
dy
dz
t
dx dy dz dx
v x v y v z
v x
vy
v z
dy
dz
t dx
dx dy dz
D
.v
Dt
Substantial derivative of
Divergence of v
Equation of Continuity
For incompressible fluids (constant ):
d
0
dt
v x
v y
v z
v x
v y
v z 0
dx
dx dy
dy dz
dz
dv x dv y dv z
0
v
dx
dy
dz
Equation of Momentum
x
vx)x
vx)x+x
z
y
[Mom. accumulation] = [Mom. in] [Mom. out] + [Forces]
Momentum enters and leaves control volume through
convective momentum transfer and viscous action through
velocity gradient
Equation of momentum
Rate of accumulation of x-momentum:
v
v
d
v
v
d
d
d v x
v
v
x y
x z
x x
dx
dt
dy
dz
d xx d yx d zx dp
gx
dy
dz dx
dx
v x v y v z
Considering the continuity equation:
dy
dz
t
dx
we get:
dv x
dv x
dv x
dv x d xx d yx d zx dp
v x
vy
vz
gx
dt
dy
dz dx
dy
dz dx
dx
More on viscous flux
Recall Newtons law of viscosity:
dv x
yx
dy
The viscous term in the momentum equation: derivative
of the shear stress:
d zx
d xx d yx
dx
dy
dz
So, this term is a function of the second-derivative of
velocity!
More on viscous flux
For incompressible, Newtonian fluids, we can simplify to:
d 2v x d 2v x d 2v x
2 2 2 2 v
dy
dz
dx
Equation of momentum
For Newtonian and incompressible fluids:
dvx
dvx
dvx
dvx
v x
vy
vz
dt
dx
dy
dz
d 2 vx d 2 vx d 2 vx dp
2 2 2
g x
dy
dz dx
dx
Navier-Stokes equation What you learned in Fluid Mech!
Same treatment for y- and z-momentum
???
Further reading on this:
Welty et al. (2001), Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass
Transfer 4th ed., ch. 7-9
Bird, Stewart, Lightfoot (2007), Transport Phenomena, ch. 1-3
McCabe, Smith, Harriot (2004), Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, ch. 4
Note: in the first 2 books, the normal stress (xx, yy, zz) are
denoted differently (xx, yy, zz), and the pressure effects are
included in here.
Class example
Similar to the case of parallel plates, but with the plates
vertical
Effects of gravity
Newtonian
Laminar
Incompressible
Steady state
From: Welty et al., 2001
Class example
v0 = 0
From: Welty et al., 2001
Other examples
Flow on inclined surface
Try to do this problem yourself!
Pipe flow
a bit more difficult, as we need to use cylindrical coordinates!
Cylindrical coordinates
x r cos
y r sin
zz
r x2 y2
tan 1
y
x
Equation of continuity:
d 1 d
rvr 1 d v d vz 0
dt r dr
r d
dz
Cylindrical coordinates
Equation of motion for fluids with constant
and :
Pipe Flow
Fully-developed (steady) flow
Far from entrances/exits
Flow is laminar and 1 directional:
vr = 0
v = 0
vz = vz(r)
p = p(z)
Pipe Flow
Continuity eqn:
1 d
d 1 d
d
rvr
v vz 0
dt r dr
r d
dz
For constant density:
d
0
dt
1 d
1 dv dvz
rvr
0
r dr
r d
dz
As vr = v = 0, we get:
dv z
0
dz
Pipe Flow
Eqn of motion in the z-direction
Flow is symmetrical about the z-axis d2vz/d2 = 0
So, we get:
d dvz dp
g z
r
r dr dr dz
d dv z dp
r
z
dr dr dz
Integrating once:
2
dvz dp
r
g z
C1
r
dr dz
2
dvz/dr doesnt
become infinite
when r = 0
dv z dp
r C1
g z
dr dz
2 r
Pipe Flow
Integrate again to get vz:
2
dp
r
C2
vz g z
dz
4
Use the boundary condition to evaluate C2, and we get:
1 dp
2
2
vz
g z r R
4 dz
As before, we use P = p + gL:
1 dP 2
vz
r R2
4 dz
Another integration:
PL
vz z 0L 1 r 2 R 2 P
4
P0
P0 PL 2 2
vz
R r
4 L
Special case (Creeping flow)
Creeping flow & Stokes law
Very slow flows
d
d
d
D
d
0
vx
vy
vz
dz
Dt
dx
dy
dt
Therefore, we have:
d 2vx d 2vx d 2vx
dp
2 2 2
dx
dy
dz
dx
(also for other directions)
Negligible effects of inertia, Re << 1
Important concept in flow around solid objects and fall/settling of
small particles through a fluid
Special case (Creeping flow)
Flow past a sphere
The creeping flow equation has been used to solve the velocity
and pressure distribution in slow flows past a sphere
3 R 1 R 3
cos
vr v 1
r
2
2 r
3 R 1R
v v 1
sin
4
4 r
r
v 0
3 v R
p p0 gz
cos
2 R r
2
Special case (Creeping flow)
Flow past a sphere
Total drag over the surface of the sphere = [form drag] + [viscous
drag]
Occurs as fluid needs to
change direction to pass
around the sphere
Stokes equation FD 6Rv
Valid for
Re
2 v0 R
1.0
Due to shear stress at the
sphere surface
Special case (Inviscid flow)
Euler equations for ideal fluids
Fluids with constant density and very low viscosity
inviscid flow
dv x
dvx
dvx
dvx dp
v x
vy
vz
g x
dy
dz dx
dt
dx
Aerodynamics & hydrodynamics
Re >> 1 and 0
Special case (Inviscid flow)
The Euler equation of motion could be re-arranged to get
the Bernoulli equation
p2
1 2 2
v2 v2 dp g h2 h1 0
p1
2
Bird, Stewart, & Lightfoot, Section 3.3 and example 3.5-1.
Conditions:
Steady, fully-developed flow
Viscosity plays a minor role
Or, in a more familiar format:
u12 P1
u22 P2
gz1 gz2
2
2
Another example
Similar treatment and
assumptions:
Fully-developed (steady)
flow
Far from entrances/exits
Flow is laminar and 1
directional:
vr = 0
v = 0
vz = vz(r)
p = p(z)
Consider boundary
conditions to evaluate
velocity profile
Summary
More on equations of change (isothermal)
Continuity Mass balance
Momentum equation Effects of convective flux,
shear stress and viscous flux, pressure, and gravity
Common assumptions and boundary conditions
Limitations
Important concepts:
laminar and turbulent flows
Creeping and inviscid flows
Questions?