Reasoning with Variables
An instance of an atom or a clause is obtained by uniformly
substituting terms for variables.
A substitution is a finite set of the form {V1 /t1 , . . . , Vn /tn },
where each Vi is a distinct variable and each ti is a term.
The application of a substitution = {V1 /t1 , . . . , Vn /tn } to
an atom or clause e, written e, is the instance of e with
every occurrence of Vi replaced by ti .
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Application Examples
The following are substitutions:
1 = {X /A, Y /b, Z /C , D/e}
2 = {A/X , Y /b, C /Z , D/e}
3 = {A/V , X /V , Y /b, C /W , Z /W , D/e}
The following shows some applications:
p(A, b, C , D)1 =
p(X , Y , Z , e)1 =
p(A, b, C , D)2 =
p(X , Y , Z , e)2 =
p(A, b, C , D)3 =
p(X , Y , Z , e)3 =
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Application Examples
The following are substitutions:
1 = {X /A, Y /b, Z /C , D/e}
2 = {A/X , Y /b, C /Z , D/e}
3 = {A/V , X /V , Y /b, C /W , Z /W , D/e}
The following shows some applications:
p(A, b, C , D)1 = p(A, b, C , e)
p(X , Y , Z , e)1 = p(A, b, C , e)
p(A, b, C , D)2 = p(X , b, Z , e)
p(X , Y , Z , e)2 = p(X , b, Z , e)
p(A, b, C , D)3 = p(V , b, W , e)
p(X , Y , Z , e)3 = p(V , b, W , e)
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Unifiers
Substitution is a unifier of e1 and e2 if e1 = e2 .
Substitution is a most general unifier (mgu) of e1 and e2 if
I
I
is a unifier of e1 and e2 ; and
if substitution 0 also unifies e1 and e2 , then e 0 is an instance
of e for all atoms e.
If two atoms have a unifier, they have a most general unifier.
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Unification Example
Which of the following are unifiers of p(A, b, C , D) and
p(X , Y , Z , e):
1 = {X /A, Y /b, Z /C , D/e}
2 = {Y /b, D/e}
3 = {X /A, Y /b, Z /C , D/e, W /a}
4 = {A/X , Y /b, C /Z , D/e}
5 = {X /a, Y /b, Z /c, D/e}
6 = {A/a, X /a, Y /b, C /c, Z /c, D/e}
7 = {A/V , X /V , Y /b, C /W , Z /W , D/e}
8 = {X /A, Y /b, Z /A, C /A, D/e}
Which are most general unifiers?
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Unification Example
p(A, b, C , D) and p(X , Y , Z , e) have as unifiers:
1 = {X /A, Y /b, Z /C , D/e}
4 = {A/X , Y /b, C /Z , D/e}
7 = {A/V , X /V , Y /b, C /W , Z /W , D/e}
6 = {A/a, X /a, Y /b, C /c, Z /c, D/e}
8 = {X /A, Y /b, Z /A, C /A, D/e}
3 = {X /A, Y /b, Z /C , D/e, W /a}
The first three are most general unifiers.
The following substitutions are not unifiers:
2 = {Y /b, D/e}
5 = {X /a, Y /b, Z /c, D/e}
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Proofs
A proof is a mechanically derivable demonstration that a
formula logically follows from a knowledge base.
Given a proof procedure, KB ` g means g can be derived
from knowledge base KB.
Recall KB |= g means g is true in all models of KB.
A proof procedure is sound if KB ` g implies KB |= g .
A proof procedure is complete if KB |= g implies KB ` g .
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Bottom-up proof procedure
KB ` g if there is g 0 added to C in this procedure where g = g 0 :
C := {};
repeat
select clause h b1 . . . bm in KB such that
there is a substitution such that
for all i, there exists bi0 C where bi = bi0 and
there is no h0 C such that h0 is more general than h
C := C {h}
until no more clauses can be selected.
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Example
live(Y ) connected to(Y , Z ) live(Z ). live(outside).
connected to(w6 , w5 ). connected to(w5 , outside).
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Example
live(Y ) connected to(Y , Z ) live(Z ). live(outside).
connected to(w6 , w5 ). connected to(w5 , outside).
C = {live(outside),
connected to(w6 , w5 ),
connected to(w5 , outside),
live(w5 ),
live(w6 )}
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Soundness of bottom-up proof procedure
If KB ` g then KB |= g .
Suppose there is a g such that KB ` g and KB 6|= g .
Then there must be a first atom added to C that has an
instance that isnt true in every model of KB. Call it h.
Suppose h isnt true in model I of KB.
There must be a clause in KB of form
h0 b1 . . . bm
where h = h0 . Each bi is true in I . h is false in I . So this
clause is false in I . Therefore I isnt a model of KB.
Contradiction.
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Fixed Point
The C generated by the bottom-up algorithm is called a
fixed point.
C can be infinite; we require the selection to be fair.
Herbrand interpretation: The domain is the set of constants.
We invent one if the KB or query doesnt contain one.
Each constant denotes itself.
Let I be the Herbrand interpretation in which every ground
instance of every element of the fixed point is true and every
other atom is false.
I is a model of KB.
Proof: suppose h b1 . . . bm in KB is false in I . Then h
is false and each bi is true in I . Thus h can be added to C .
Contradiction to C being the fixed point.
I is called a Minimal Model.
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Completeness
If KB |= g then KB ` g .
Suppose KB |= g . Then g is true in all models of KB.
Thus g is true in the minimal model.
Thus g is in the fixed point.
Thus g is generated by the bottom up algorithm.
Thus KB ` g .
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Top-down Proof procedure
A generalized answer clause is of the form
yes(t1 , . . . , tk ) a1 a2 . . . am ,
where t1 , . . . , tk are terms and a1 , . . . , am are atoms.
The SLD resolution of this generalized answer clause on ai
with the clause
a b1 . . . bp ,
where ai and a have most general unifier , is
(yes(t1 , . . . , tk )
a1 . . . ai1 b1 . . . bp ai+1 . . . am ).
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To solve query ?B with variables V1 , . . . , Vk :
Set ac to generalized answer clause yes(V1 , . . . , Vk ) B;
While ac is not an answer do
Suppose ac is yes(t1 , . . . , tk ) a1 a2 . . . am
Select atom ai in the body of ac;
Choose clause a b1 . . . bp in KB;
Rename all variables in a b1 . . . bp ;
Let be the most general unifier of ai and a.
Fail if they dont unify;
Set ac to (yes(t1 , . . . , tk ) a1 . . . ai1
b1 . . . bp ai+1 . . . am )
end while.
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Example
live(Y ) connected to(Y , Z ) live(Z ). live(outside).
connected to(w6 , w5 ). connected to(w5 , outside).
?live(A).
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Example
live(Y ) connected to(Y , Z ) live(Z ). live(outside).
connected to(w6 , w5 ). connected to(w5 , outside).
?live(A).
yes(A) live(A).
yes(A) connected to(A, Z1 ) live(Z1 ).
yes(w6 ) live(w5 ).
yes(w6 ) connected to(w5 , Z2 ) live(Z2 ).
yes(w6 ) live(outside).
yes(w6 ) .
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Function Symbols
Often we want to refer to individuals in terms of components.
Examples: 4:55 p.m. English sentences. A classlist.
We extend the notion of term . So that a term can be
f (t1 , . . . , tn ) where f is a function symbol and the ti are
terms.
In an interpretation and with a variable assignment, term
f (t1 , . . . , tn ) denotes an individual in the domain.
One function symbol and one constant can refer to infinitely
many individuals.
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Lists
A list is an ordered sequence of elements.
Lets use the constant nil to denote the empty list, and the
function cons(H, T ) to denote the list with first element H
and rest-of-list T . These are not built-in.
The list containing sue, kim and randy is
cons(sue, cons(kim, cons(randy , nil)))
append(X , Y , Z ) is true if list Z contains the elements of X
followed by the elements of Y
append(nil, Z , Z ).
append(cons(A, X ), Y , cons(A, Z )) append(X , Y , Z ).
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