What is Topography?

The word topography itself is derived from the Greek "topo," meaning
place, and "graphia," meaning to write, or to record.
The term "topography" is principally applied in the study of Earth's
surface, whether it is man-made structure or natural. But the proper
definition of topography is the study of structures, shapes, sizes and
dimensions.

Objectives, Utilizations, and Purposes

The different objectives of topography vary according to the field in
which it is applied. Detailed topographical information of a particular
land is important for planning construction jobs, civil engineering,
reclamation works and public works. It is also essential to minutely
survey a terrain for initiating any military incursions or some geological
explorations.
In surveying, however, the main objective of topographical survey is to
prepare an accurate map with all existing features, and prepare contour
plan to show the elevation variation.
One of the most widely used of all maps is the topographic map. The
feature that most distinguishes topographic maps from maps of other

types is the use of contour lines to portray the shape and elevation of the
land. Topographic maps render the three-dimensional ups and downs of
the terrain on a two-dimensional surface.
Topographic maps usually portray both natural and manmade features.
They show and name works of nature including mountains, valleys,
plains, lakes, rivers, and vegetation. They also identify the principal
works of man, such as roads, boundaries, transmission lines, and major
buildings.
Modern-day topography is generally concerned with the measurement
and recording of elevation contours, producing a three-dimensional
representation of the Earth's surface. A series of points are chosen and
measured in terms of their horizontal coordinates, such as latitude and
longitude, and their vertical position, in terms of altitude. When recorded
in a series, these points produce contour lines which show gradual
changes in the terrain.
Irrespective of the fields of use, topography is applied for determining
the exact position of any geographical or biological feature and its parts
in respect to a reference point or simply in space. The units used for this
determination are the horizontal coordinate system (longitude and
latitude) and altitude. To make things clearer, different naming
conventions are used in different fields that are also a part of
topography.

A topographic study can be used for a variety of applications such as

military planning and geological exploration. Detailed information about
terrain and surface features is also essential for the planning and
construction of any major civil engineering or construction projects.

Spot Height
Spot heights are the small black numbers on the map that indicate
altitude in meters. Each number will usually include a small black dot
(and sometimes a black circle). The dot is the position of the spot height.
Spot heights can be used to indicate which way to go or not to go.
In the simplest form of spot height navigation you will be presented with
a list of numbers. This will mean you must select, usually, the shortest
route that joins them together. Never be tempted to pass through other
spot heights that are not in the list, the navigational rules often state that
if a specific feature for navigation is used - in this case, spot heights then all others should be ignored.

Hachure
Hachures are short, broken lines used to show relief. They are multiple
crossing lines that create a shaded definition on either maps or drawings.
In topography, they are used to define surface relief. They are also
known as "tick marks". They do not represent exact elevations, but are
mainly used to show large, rocky outcrop areas. Hachures are used
extensively on small-scale maps to show mountain ranges, plateaus, and
mountain peaks.

Form Lines
Form lines are not measured from any datum plane. Form lines have no
standard elevation and give only a general idea of relief. Form lines are

represented on a map as dashed lines and are never labeled with

representative elevations.

Contour Lines
Contour lines are the most common method of showing relief and
elevation on a standard topographic map. A contour line represents an
imaginary line on the ground, above or below sea level. All points on the
contour line are at the same elevation. The elevation represented by
contour lines is the vertical distance above or below sea level.

Shading
Relief shading indicates relief by a shadow effect achieved by tone and
colors that result in the darkening of one side of terrain features, such as
hills and ridges. The darker the shading, the steeper the slope. Shaded
relief is sometimes used in conjunction with contour lines to emphasize
these features.

Principal Characteristics of Contours

1) All points in a contour line have the same elevation.

2) Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and
steep-slope where they run close together.
3) A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniformly
spaced

4) A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced.
5) A series of closed contour lines on the map represent a hill, if the
higher values are inside.

6) Consequently, a series of closed contour lines on the map indicate a

depression if the higher values are outside

7) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles. If the higher
values are inside the bend or loop in the contour, it indicates a Ridge.
Consequently, if the higher values are outside the bend, it represents a
Valley.

8) Contours cannot end anywhere but close on themselves either within

or outside the limits of the map.
9) Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on map except in the
case of an overhanging cliff.
10) Contour lines never run into one another except in the case of a
vertical cliff. In this case, several contours coincide and the horizontal
equivalent becomes zero.

11) Depressions between summits are called a saddle. It is represented

by four sets of contours as shown. It represents a dip in a ridge or the
junction of two ridges. And in the case of a mountain range, it takes the
form of a pass.

Properties of Contours
1) Each contour line must close upon itself on or off the
map. A contour line cannot dead end.

2) When crossing a stream, contour lines form Vs which

point upstream.
3) When crossing a ridge, contour lines form Us which
point down the ridge.
4) Contour lines cannot cross or meet, except in the
unusual cases of waterfalls, or overhanging cliffs.
5) Closed contours represent either a summit or a
depression. Inspection of the index contours will indicate
which it is.
6) Contour lines tend to parallel streams. Rivers generally
have flatter gradient then do intermittent streams. Thus,
contour lines will more nearly parallel along rivers than
contours along intermittent streams and they will run
parallel for a longer distance.
7) A contour cannot branch or wye into two contours of
the same elevation.
8) Contour lines for Ms just above stream junctions.

9) Contour lines are perpendicular to the direction of the

maximum slope.
10) Uniformly spaced contour lines represent uniformly
sloping ground.
11) Irregularly spaced contour lines represent rough,
rugged ground. Contour lines are not drawn through
buildings or other significant construction objects.

Uses of Contours
Contour maps are very useful since they provide valuable information
about the terrain. Some of the uses are as follows:
1) The nature of the ground and its slope can be estimated
2) Earth work can be estimated for civil engineering projects like road
works, railway, canals, dams etc.
3) It is possible to identify suitable site for any project from the contour
map of the region.

4) Inter-visibility of points can be ascertained using contour maps. This

is most useful for locating communication towers.
5) Military uses contour maps for strategic planning.

Types of Contours
Index
Starting at zero elevation or mean sea level, every fifth contour line is a
heavier line. These are known as index contour lines. Normally, each
index contour line is numbered at some point. This number is the
elevation of that line.

Intermediate
The contour lines falling between the index contour lines are called
intermediate contour lines. These lines are finer and do not have their
elevations given. There are normally four intermediate contour lines
between index contour lines.

Supplementary

These contour lines resemble dashes. They show changes in elevation of

at least one-half the contour interval. These lines are normally found
where there is very little change in elevation, such as on fairly level
terrain.

Figure shows the different types of Contour lines

Depressions
Craters and sinkholes are examples of closed depressions. They are
shown by using roughly circular contour lines that have Hachure marks
inside that run perpendicular to the downhill side of the depression.

Approximate or Interval
The contour interval measurement given in the marginal information is
the vertical distance between adjacent contour lines.

Methods of Obtaining Contour

Direct
It consists in finding vertical and horizontal controls of the points which
lie on the selected contour line.

For vertical control leveling instrument is commonly used. A level is set

on a commanding position in the area after taking fly levels from the
nearby bench mark. The plane of collimation/height of instrument is
found and the required staff reading for a contour line is calculated. The
instrument man asks staff man to move up and down in the area till the
required staff reading is found. A surveyor establishes the horizontal
control of that point using his instruments. After that instrument man
directs the staff man to another point where the same staff reading can
be found. It is followed by establishing horizontal control. Thus several
points are established on a contour line on one or two contour lines and
suitably noted down. Plane table survey is ideally suited for this work.
After required points are established from the instrument setting, the
instrument is shifted to another point to cover more area. The level and
survey instrument need not be shifted at the same time. It is better if both
are nearby so as to communicate easily. For getting speed in leveling

sometimes hand level and Abney levels are also used. This method is
slow, tedious but accurate. It is suitable for small areas.

Indirect
In this method, levels are taken at some selected points and their levels
are reduced. Thus in this method horizontal control is established first
and then the levels of those points found. After locating the points on the
plan, reduced levels are marked and contour lines are interpolated
between the selected points.

Coordinate
In this method area is divided into a number of squares and all grid
points are marked. Commonly used size of square varies from 5 m x 5 m
to 20 m x 20 m. Levels of all grid points are established by leveling.
Then grid square is plotted on the drawing sheet. Reduced levels of grid
points marked and contour lines are drawn by interpolation.