Lh0lcr
blrucluI'8 t0rmS and %a!cra8 0tc0nslruclI0u
.1 Iotroductiou
ridg0building can be traced 030Kseveral thousand years. In primitive times, man used fallen |!005, a!ches made of
a rock fall and suS0ns|on Ut|0g0$m80cof vines and creepers to cross streams and valleys. These are th0three natural fom1s
of bridging methods, namely, the b08, Ih0 8I0h and the suspension structure. In gener8l, these three ty
p
e.s resist Ioad D)
bending, comptession and tension respectively. Despite the technological 0dY8D00S in the conslruclion iudustry, these three
forms, either singularly or in combination, i0m0|RthO b0:8 of all 0ridge construction.
Evolution of bridge types were closely linked to the development of building materials. lnitially, the building materials
were timber and stone which arc nature materials. Most of the existing ancient bridges are constncted of 0Ithtype. The vast
majority of 0!0h bri dges were built WIh SIOP0 mSOHiy. ^ few were also built of iron. Then the "artifcial materials'' was
develop:d in the sequence of cast iron, wrought iron, steel, concrete, reinforced concrete and then prestressed concrete. In the
19th centur engineers played a great par in the development of the use of cast iron, wrUught HBand eventually steel for bridge
structures. Today concrete is the dominant structural material. UW0\0lit was not until late into the l9th centul)' that concrete
was used extensively for bridge construction. Due to n 5hD|I0g005I00 there wa a rapid development in the use of p!e8tr:ssed
concrete afer 2nd world war. Now prestressed concrete has 00COm0the most widely used material for 0I|UgOconstruction in
several countries.
. ArchUr0g08
Arch relies on the compressive 8trength of material to s
p
a between two supports. 1h0Stress in a arch is wholly
compressive, with no bending, if its $hape exactly suits the patter or load. For instance, an arch in th0fonn of a parabola can
suppor a uniformly disturbed load by compression only. However, as the 8Bth
vehice, I0cnnot b0l08hQ8|a iiO00gu00lbO0I@l8
Before th0 HV00IUH Ostructural m0|0f
$ strong intension, arch was the only way to provide n long span bridge.
The longer the span of th00I0h the greater |sthe proporion of stress due to dead load, which the arch can be shaped to resist
by compresSion only and the smaller is th0proportion of stress that mU$lbe carried in bending.
. BeamBr|dges
The spans of ancient beam bridges were limited hy the fexural str0ngths of felt lI00S or a single piere ofstone, and
it is why most .of the ancient bridges W0I0 in arch form. Beam bridges achieved litle 8ignifcance until the iavention of latice
girders. Along with the development oftmss girder in the V|centur, the concept of box girder is also developed. Throughout
the VIcentur the dominat stcturl form was the trss girders. It wa the invention of prestressed concrete and the wedable
SI00tat had revitalised the concept of box girders. Prestressed concrete becomes V0Qpo
p
ula |Bbridge construction nowadays.
Beam bridges a 0far the most widely used fon ofbridge construction. They are appljcable mmi
a well as 1mgc58SOaround mB 8Iu300pre088t 0UB0fN80 8jN m u8l0cl In
certain circumstaces, larger spans have been achieved with these forms of construction. Trafc requirements in Hong Kong
(and some other parts ofthe world) have made grade separation necessa at juncti ons. Generally, such gnde separations require
the construction of small to mcdiumspan bridges or fyovers for which beam type bridges arc the most [Link].
5uspeosiouBridges
lBthe ancient time, lage scale stmctral engineering was dominatedby the fact that the available m0I0r88W0!cSIOHg
0compression bUIweM in tensi0n. It wa theref0re apart from the suspension type footbridges made initially with creepers from
trees Utropi0al forests and IcIwith hemp ropes, development Osuspension bridges was n0I advanced until the 0HV0! of
wrought iron uK B 8|0 8th century.
The major clement ofthe suspension bridge is a fexible high strength cable, shaped 0Hd supported h such a way that
it ca trsfer the major loads to the towers and anchorages by direct tcn8On. 1h0 deck is hung from the cable by hangers. The
m0Bcable is usually s|iI`:nedby a system Ogirders uldeck cvOI, wh:0h Scrcs !O provide acrodynamIcstabillty.
Suspension bridges are used to fonn exceptionally large spans, they are supreme for spans in excess of 800 m. They
are a highly specialised for of construction m0umo!e expensive than beam bridges. Their use is therefore limiLed to a very
sma1l number of a
p
plications where their ability to $
p
an large d8!0008isparamount.
O
J. L8D0-8taj0d Utd_cs
P Y8I8Dl to the suspension bridge is !h0 cablestayed bridge. 1U8d uUd dB bridges and also footbridges can be
constructed a cable-stayed bridges. In mdjcases the bridge dcCKI5D!concrete, \Vhilc in other cases, especially \V hcrc|h:S8S
are Yc!' great, ! is Osteel. Composite girders are also bui |t.
^ important element of a cable-styed bridge 8represented hy the stay cb!CS !u0m8CvC8. Jhese can UCCOu5H0!0U
in various W8y8. JhCsuccess O!cable-stayed bridges is, however, in UuSm8measure due to the use of high-strength S|0O!S fcr
!h0S!j$, especially in the form of strands which ofer particular advantages.
^ cable-stayed bridge consists, ignoring |!Sfoundations, ofthree main elements:
l
|
|I
Tower(s),
00K,
0001.
. PepularTypcsoIBr|dgeDccks
The most popular types Olbridge decks c8Hbe classifed into reinforced concrete deck, prestressed concrete deck, steel
deck or composite type such as reinforced sl8D on steel 0u8m OIreinforced 88D on prestnssed concrete beam.
H0nJtcCd ConcreteUcck
J0most popular tpes of U00KSiui0U10C<UtOn0|OIcfor 5hOIIspans are :
(a)
The uld s8b dcCkfor spans up to H0IIcS.
A slab deck behaves like 0 fat plate which is stucturally continuous for bcuS0tumOmc0|Smdl0tslon 0\
diretions VIhD\bCplane of the plate. When a load is pla0ed on part of n slab, the slab defects locally in 8 ''dsh" c8usng 8
two dimeusional system of moments and torsion which transfer and share !B0 u8d !O neighbouring parts of the dcCK whic h ae
l0SSseverely loadeC. P s|ab is "isotropic" when |IS stif11ess are the same |D all directions in the plane of the slab.
C!
Jhcvoded8l8b dcckorsQ8nSuQ |o20metres:
For spans _00I0!lh8 !3m,the material content and dead load of a solid S80000000ScXCc8$IV001CI S 0BSI0m3
\0 |ghI0UIh0strcture by incorporating voids of cylindrical or rectangular cross-section Uu0r!h0neutraais. cdcQm md
WIdIh OIhc voids s l0SU0 U pcrcclO!Ibc OVcl0I\ SlmC!m dc!h, !hct effect on the stiffness is small ad the Cc0K
Dch8VcSclV0lya a plate.
VOu0u5\8Ddeck bebaves a described above as Sl80deck. OW0\C!I! is consIdcrcdas an "orthotropic" slab as the
$!1u0>Sae diferent mlWUdireOions 0l right angles. Voided slab decks ae frequently constn1ctcd U!Concrete cast in situ with
permanent void fom1ers. Ifthc void 8Z0 exceeds U per cent ofthc depth th deck is generally considered to be of cellular
construction with a different behaviour.
(c) The s8D andg|rder(cvam)oIspans up to 2D0I!08.
^beam-and-slab deck consists of a UuUb0rOlongitudinal beams connected across thdr tops by a lh!ucontinuous
SIHIu|0slab. In ||0n8lctof the Ioad longitudinally to the supports, the slab acts in concert W\lhu:0 beams as their top fanges.
/! the same time !he g!00IO!deflection of the most heavily loaOed D00m$ bends the S0b transversely so !h8! it transfers and
S3t0Sout the load to the neighbouring beams. Beam-and-slab construction has the advantage over slab tat it is ver much
_hlcrVh\cr0lnDg!0D0C0ssjlongitudinal stifness.
Beam-and-slab dcOk$ can be divided into !O m8n groups: those with !h0 beams at close centres or touching ae
refred to as "contiguous beam-and-slab", while those WIB beams at VIu0 centres ae IU!J|00 |0 0S "spaced beam-and-slab".
Spaced beam-and-slab decks commonly have the beams at about ` m to J. m centres.
.b.7 r0!r088cd L0ncrclcUcCk
P structure may be prestressed by any procedure which produces a permanent stress distribution. P faVUuIable
prestress can improve 50iI00perfonnance. In concrete U1cprestress is usully achieved by straining prestressing 8trads relative
to the concrete, causing l0H8II0stresses u the tc$!!Ossin_S|00Sand balancing compressivc stresses in the concret0.
6
The most [opular Ij[08 of br|dge decks in prestressed concrete for medium and long spans ae :
|l
1hcprestressed 80ld erVod0d 8l8d00R for span5up to 2" metres:
)
The prestressed pt088! bm8VY\B lB8lIu d0tK slab -for spans up to Jb metres:
|)
The prestressed b88W W!h cellular tI08-80tl01 for Spans up to 150 metres:
The cross-section of a cellular or box girder is made up of a numb0r u!thin slabs and thin or thick webs Which totally
enclose a number of cells. These complicated structural fom1s are increasingly used in preference to beam-and-slab decks for
spans in excess of 30 m bc08uSe in auUitoh to the low ma|0riacontent, low weight and gh loHgiludRal bending stifness they
have high torsional stifess which giVe them better stability and u80distrihution characteristics.
..J
IrcIDcck
The m0s|popular types OSIccI dCcKs are:
(a) H0l0d b!r0l08m8 - The maximum Sp0n is controlled by maximum section SIZc Uuniversal beam5, Wh0h is
cuncntly more convenient to use for spans up to Z8 m. Cross girders are gCne|alIy provided only at SupoIIs. I-beam is usually
acting compositely wlh 0r0i0oIc0concrete deck. The co[0S!te action is iuVd0d by shear connectors which forc the slab
to act a an integral part of the beam.
(b) Plnte Lrdcrs -Plate girders acting compositely with a Icu!0c0u cOuctcI0 deck slab provide OC0B0mC DIdgcS |n
the range of 22 m to 00 m. The cohpoSi|e action is roV!CeC by Sh00|conneclors which force the slab to act as an integral part
of the beam. There is more efcient use of material in plate girders than that of rolled -bUam, due to the usual adoQlion of
unequal mig08 0l mid-span, Variable girder depth for long spans nnd thicker webS U\ and over supports. However tne
advantage5 of 0c0n! use of material is ofSet by the greater cost of fabrication and provision of temporar bracing, Ln the
othe,r hand, by 0ompaing with truss, the relative simplicil)' of plate girder's geometry leads to low fabrication costs.
l
r)
0XLr00r8- Box giId0ISare used fairly extensively throughout the world in a wide vcgUways since they came
into faShion in Ihe 1970's. They require a conSid0rabC 0mUuHI Od0SIgn 0|0t|, and ae at their most vulnerable during
construction.
Steel box girders are appropriate for long span bridges up to 200 m because of the inherent torsional rigidity of the
boxes. Due lUtheir light weight, they are used in the construction of Su5pensio0 and cable stayed bridges. The deck 5uIla0cis
either a Ieinor0ed concrete slab acting compositely with the box or the fange of the box itself The fonner lyc lS03l0d 0O5cd
tye 8hdIh0latter type Scalle0 open type or 'wash tub'. G0n0ra!y open type is more common and they uses less steel and has
better access for welding,
Fabrication of steel box girders SC0mc8 8U is usually caied out in a fabrication jald under controlled conditions
to minimise locked-in stresses and distorions 0uHng welding, The segments are erected CiI her by 6rane or by winching off the
already 6omple|0C deck. Temporar bolting is u5ed initially to a00uIatelylocate the gi|d0r3 in position and the assembly is then
either welded or bolted using Hb! boltS. In some cases a combination of the two methods have been used.
(d) 1luSS08 The truss form hab0en adopted for a numbcI for footbridges in Hong Kong. /Iu55may be described 05
0tr agulat0d assembly of straight members with the maor characteristics ofthe centroidal axes of all meNb0r5 are SIlaigDt mid
are concurrent at the nodes Uljoints,
1h0 U85h0In0advantage of b0ing light and h0nc0 easy to transport mU erect. lrOQUif0d !hcy can be |rmsQor|cd
in pi0C0s and assembled on site by either bolting or \velding. However the advantages of economy in material and I0CuccC dead
weight are 80B0V0C at the expense of increased fbrication and maintenanc0 0ost5.
The conventional truss bridge is most liKly !U be economical for medium spans. Traditionally, it has been used for spans
intermediate between the plate girder ad the 8lcncd suspension bridge. Modem construction t0chnIques have tended to
iucrease the economical span of both steel and concrete girders. The cable-stayed girder bridge has become a Comp0litor to the
steel truss for the intermediate spans. Jh0Scfactors, all of which are related to the high fabrication |0SI 0a IHSS, B8Y0lfn00d
to reduce the frequency of truss spans in recent jeaIS.
J h8lcr88 - L0u0i00or b0rl
The 0hu0cof the fonus 0OIypes of structures a WcIIa material for 0onStru0tion depends on the 8ite condition, the
span, availability of the material 0Othe type of ou0d0tI ouadopted. Each project Shoul d O0 Consi00icd on its own merit.
1
05I Olh0 bridges in Hong Kong are constructed n concrete bcCuS0 Ih0|C IS 0W8}S an adeQuate 8uQQy O1Ih0
\uu>\|IuOh|m0|0HS, mdIh0!d0ca be constructed to any uc5I0lJ0 um by shaping the formwork. I S 85U l00KuB0d I!8l
Ihcic |$ a lack of skilled local metal worker required for fabrication (include welding) and erection of steehvork.
NcQ J2W road bridges of tOmu8I0 8!cCI construction h0VC 0cn 00uS||uUI00 in Hong Kong. The lightness of
8!`WOkha made Ih0erection gu0c!. h0WV0r!1br00IOnOIslOCCl0:0CtctUOu required skilfl welders ad metl workers.
/c8cni, Ihr08u ShoHa0 O!|hc8c Kl!I0d vorIcrs in Hong Kong. Al8O |hcsIcI Scc!Iun8arc not readily available in Hong
Kong and have to be imported I|OmuOiOud.
/S la I0COSI |StUu0cH\C0. !iO3IOl$IH0lUIa stccl WOr| 8h_h0 |h0U |hc CuSI Oconcrete. /0C0U!u lhS, Ih0
OngIcrm munIcnuDC0cO8l I0t8\cO 8more expensive than concrete.
b