Coordinate measuring machine (CMM)

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A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is a device for measuring the physical geometrical
characteristics of an object. This machine may be manually controlled by an operator or it may
be computer controlled. Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving axis
of this machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser, or white light, amongst others. A
machine which takes readings in six degrees of freedom and displays these readings in
mathematical form is known as a CMM.

Description
The typical 3 "bridge" CMM is composed of three axes, an X, Y and Z. These axes are
orthogonal to each other in a typical three-dimensional coordinate system. Each axis has a scale
system that indicates the location of that axis. The machine will read the input from the touch
probe, as directed by the operator or programmer. The machine then uses the X,Y,Z coordinates
of each of these points to determine size and position with micrometre precision typically.

A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is also a device used in manufacturing and assembly
processes to test a part or assembly against the design intent. By precisely recording the X, Y,
and Z coordinates of the target, points are generated which can then be analyzed via regression
algorithms for the construction of features. These points are collected by using a probe that is
positioned manually by an operator or automatically via Direct Computer Control (DCC). DCC
CMMs can be programmed to repeatedly measure identical parts, thus a CMM is a specialized
form of industrial robot.









Parts
Coordinate-measuring machines include three main components:
The main structures which include three axes of motion. The material used to construct the
moving frame has varied over the years. Granite and steel was used in the early CMM's. Today
all the major CMM manufacturers build frames from aluminums alloy or some derivative and also
use ceramic to increase the stiffness of the Z axis for scanning applications. Few CMM builders
today still manufacture granite frame CMM due to market requirement for improved metrology
dynamics and increasing trend to install CMM outside of the quality lab. Typically only low
volume CMM builders and domestic manufacturers in China and India are still manufacturing
granite CMM due to low technology approach and easy entry to become a CMM frame builder.
The increasing trend towards scanning also requires the CMM Z axis to be stiffer and new
materials have been introduced such as ceramic and silicon carbide.
Probing system
Data collection and reduction system - typically includes a machine controller, desktop computer
and application software.






















Machine body
The first CMM was developed by the Ferranti Company of Scotland in the 1950s
[1]
as the result
of a direct need to measure precision components in their military products, although this
machine only had 2 axes. The first 3-axis models began appearing in the 1960s (DEA of Italy)
and computer control debuted in the early 1970s (Sheffield of the USA). Leitz Germany
subsequently produced a fixed machine structure with moving table.
[citation needed]

In modern machines, the gantry type superstructure has two legs and is often called a bridge.
This moves freely along the granite table with one leg (often referred to as the inside leg)
following a guide rail attached to one side of the granite table. The opposite leg (often outside
leg) simply rests on the granite table following the vertical surface contour. Air bearings are the
chosen method for ensuring friction free travel. In these, compressed air is forced through a
series of very small holes in a flat bearing surface to provide a smooth but controlled air cushion
on which the CMM can move in a frictionless manner. The movement of the bridge or gantry
along the granite table forms one axis of the XY plane. The bridge of the gantry contains a
carriage which traverses between the inside and outside legs and forms the other X or Y
horizontal axis. The third axis of movement (Z axis) is provided by the addition of a vertical quill
or spindle which moves up and down through the center of the carriage. The touch probe forms
the sensing device on the end of the quill. The movement of the X, Y and Z axes fully describes
the measuring envelope. Optional rotary tables can be used to enhance the approachability of the
measuring probe to complicated workpieces. The rotary table as a fourth drive axis does not
enhance the measuring dimensions, which remain 3D, but it does provide a degree of flexibility.
Some touch probes are themselves powered rotary devices with the probe tip able to swivel
vertically through 90 degrees and through a full 360 degree rotation.
As well as the traditional three axis machines (as pictured above), CMMs are now
also available in a variety of other forms. These include CMM arms that use angular
measurements taken at the joints of the arm to calculate the position of the stylus tip. Such arm
CMMs are often used where their portability is an advantage over traditional fixed bed CMMs.
Because CMM arms imitate the flexibility of a human arm they are also often able to reach the
insides of complex parts that could not be probed using a standard three axis machine.

Mechanical probe
In the early days of coordinate measurement mechanical probes were fitted into a special holder
on the end of the quill. A very common probe was made by soldering a hard ball to the end of a
shaft. This was ideal for measuring a whole range of flat, cylindrical or spherical surfaces. Other
probes were ground to specific shapes, for example a quadrant, to enable measurement of special
features. These probes were physically held against the workpiece with the position in space
being read from a 3-Axis digital readout (DRO) or, in more advanced systems, being logged into
a computer by means of a footswitch or similar device. Measurements taken by this contact
method were often unreliable as machines were moved by hand and each machine operator
applied different amounts of pressure on the probe or adopted differing techniques for the
measurement.
[citation needed]

A further development was the addition of motors for driving each axis. Operators no longer had
to physically touch the machine but could drive each axis using a handbox with joysticks in
much the same way as with modern remote controlled cars. Measurement accuracy and
precision improved dramatically with the invention of the electronic touch trigger probe. The
pioneer of this new probe device was David McMurtry who subsequently formed what is
now Renishaw plc.
[2]
Although still a contact device, the probe had a spring-loaded steel ball
(later ruby ball) stylus. As the probe touched the surface of the component the stylus deflected
and simultaneously sent the X.Y,Z coordinate information to the computer. Measurement errors
caused by individual operators became fewer and the stage was set for the introduction of CNC
operations and the coming of age of CMMs.
Optical probes are lens-CCD-systems, which are moved like the mechanical ones, and are aimed
at the point of interest, instead of touching the material. The captured image of the surface will
be enclosed in the borders of a measuring window, until the residue is adequate to contrast
between black and white zones. The dividing curve can be calculated to a point, which is the
wanted measuring point in space. The horizontal information on the CCD is 2D (XY) and the
vertical position is the position of the complete probing system on the stand Z-drive (or other
device component). This allows entire [Link] all using the tactile sensor system


New probing systems
There are newer models that have probes that drag along the surface of the part taking points at
specified intervals, known as scanning probes. This method of CMM inspection is often more
accurate than the conventional touch-probe method and most times faster as well.
The next generation of scanning, known as non-contact scanning includes high speed laser single
point triangulation,
[3]
laser line scanning,
[4]
and white light scanning,
[5]
is advancing very
quickly. This method uses either laser beams or white light that are projected against the surface
of the part. Many thousands of points can then be taken and used to not only check size and
position, but to create a 3D image of the part as well. This "point-cloud data" can then be
transferred to CAD software to create a working 3D model of the part. These optical scanners
often used on soft or delicate parts or to facilitate reverse engineering.
Micrometrology probes
Probing systems for microscale metrology applications are another emerging area.
[6][7]
There are
several commercially available coordinate measuring machines (CMM) that have a microprobe
integrated into the system, several specialty systems at government laboratories, and any number
of university built metrology platforms for microscale metrology. Although these machines are
good and in many cases excellent metrology platforms with nanometric scales their primary
limitation is a reliable, robust, capable micro/nano probe.
[citation needed]
Challenges for microscale
probing technologies include the need for a high aspect ratio probe giving the ability to access
deep, narrow features with low contact forces so as to not damage the surface and high precision
(nanometer level).
[citation needed]
Additionally microscale probes are susceptible to environmental
conditions such as humidity and surface interactions such as stiction (caused by adhesion,
meniscus, and/or Van der Waals forces among others).
[citation needed]

Technologies to achieve microscale probing include scaled down version of classical CMM
probes, optical probes, and a standing waveprobe
[8]
among others. However, current optical
technologies cannot be scaled small enough to measure deep, narrow feature, and optical
resolution is limited by the wavelength of light. X-ray imaging provides a picture of the feature
but no traceable metrology information.


Physical principles
Optical probes and/or laser probes can be used (if possible in combination), which change
CMMs to measuring microscopes or multi-sensor measuring machines. Fringe projection
systems, theodolite triangulation systems or laser distant and triangulation systems are not called
measuring machines, but the measuring result is the same: a space point. Laser probes are used to
detect the distance between the surface and the reference point on the end of the kinematic chain
(i.e.: end of the Z-drive component). This can use an interferometrical function, focus variation,
light deflection or a beam shadowing principle.