1
Chapters One & Three
Chemistry and You !
What is Chemistry?
The study of all substances and the
changes that they can undergo; a
process of discovery!
The CENTRAL SCIENCE because it
overlaps so many sciences
Used by: chemists (duh!), construction
engineers, hair stylists, doctors,
reghters, geologists, biologists,
physicists, pyrotechnics, etc!
The Scientic Method
An orderly and systematic approach to
gathering knowledge;
question
observation
hypothesis
experiment
conclusion
What next?
If the hypothesis is proven many times
by many different scientists:
Hypothesis -> Theory (ex: evolution)
If the theory is proven many times by
many different scientists:
- Theory -> Natural Law (ex: gravity)
The hypothesis is a cause-and-effect
statement; a tentative answer to a
question - must ALWAYS be tested!
Experimental Setup
Independent Variable:
Factor being tested
Can only have one!
Tested vs. control (trial without IV)
Dependent Variable:
What changes BECAUSE of IV
depends on the IV
Can have many DVs resulting from one IV
What must be measured
Experimental Setup
REPETITION!! Must do many trials
under the same conditions to eliminate
error
2
Organizing Data
Charts, Tables, Graphs!!
Independent Variable - x-axis
TIME is always independent!
Dependent Variable - y-axis
TITLE
Independent variable
D
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t
v
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
Types of Graphs
Linear increasing
Non-Linear increasing
Linear decreasing
Non-Linear decreasing
Measurements
Two types:
Qualitative: is not a numerical measurement
- things like color, health, sweetness
Quantitative: IS a numerical measurement -
things like length, velocity, mass, density
Measurements = Number & Unit!!!
NO UNIT = POINTS TAKEN OFF!! WHY?? The
length of a soccer eld is 100.
100 what? Meters, yards, miles, kilometers,
light years?? Tell me!
Units of Measurement
Metric System - international system of
measurement - based off 10s
SI - International System of Units
7 base units:
Mass = kg (kilogram)
Time = s (seconds)
Temperature = K (Kelvin)
Length = m (meter)
Count/quantity = mol (mole)
Electric Current = A (amps)
Luminous Intensity = cd (candela)
Units of Measurement
Additional derived SI Units
Ex: Newton (force) = kgm/s
2
Made from the 7 basic units
Know the difference between base
units and derived units
Mass vs. weight -
Mass - how much matter is in an object
Weight - force of gravity on mass
How to Make Measurements
Read ALL numbers from equipment
PLUS one ESTIMATED (uncertain) digit
All measurements are uncertain due to
aws and estimation
Show uncertainty : +/- symbol
1 2 3 4
5
6 7 8 9 10
Measurement is
6.3 cm +/- 0.1 cm
since you are
estimating the
tenths place !
3
How to Make Measurements
Graduated cylinder: measures
liquid volume at the
MENISCUS (bottom of the
curved surface of a liquid
1cm
3
= 1mL = 1cc
100cm
3
! 1m
3
because:
1m
3
= 1m x 1m x 1m
1m
3
= 100cm x 100cm x 100cm
= 1 x 10
6
cm
3
Look
here!
meniscus
Precision vs. Accuracy
Precision gets the same answer twice
Accuracy = accepted value
THINK DARTS!!
PRECISION ACCURACY
Good measurements
are BOTH!!
Percent Error
Experimental Value - the value
measured in the lab
Actual Value - the correct (accurate)
value based on reliable references
Percent error = |mv-av| x 100%
av
mv= measured value av= accepted value
Scientic Notation
Used to write very big numbers and
very small numbers
Consists of :
A number that is 1 ! x < 10
A power of 10 (10 and an exponent)
Negative exponents - numbers less
than one
Positive exponents - numbers greater
than 1
Scientic Notation
Examples:
105 = 1.05 x 10
2
0.00065 = 6.5 x 10
-4
When you do your calculations:
Multiply powers of 10 - ADD exponents
Ex: 10
-2
x 10
5
= 10
3
(-2 + 5 = 3)
Divide powers of 10 - SUBTRACT
exponents
10
-2
10
5
= 10
-7
(-2) - (5) = -7
Scientic Notation
Makes calculations of large and small
numbers EASY!
What is 1.32 x 10
6
times 7.8 x 10
2
?
Do numbers that come before powers of 10
rst: 1.32 x 7.8 = 10.296
Then work with the powers of 10:
10
6
x 10
2
= 10
8
Answer : 10.296 x 10
8
WRONG!
1.0 x 10
9
CORRECT (sig gs
and sci notation)
4
Metric Conversions
Prexes that make the unit LARGER
10
1
ten da deka
10
2
hundred h hecto
10
3
thousand k kilo
10
6
million M mega
10
9
billion G giga
10
12
trillion T tera
Multiplier Meaning Symbol Prefix
10
3
10
3
10
3
10
1
10
1
Metric Conversions
Prexes that make the unit SMALLER
10
-12
trillionth p pico
10
-9
billionth n nano
10
-6
millionth micro
10
-3
thousandth m milli
10
-2
hundredth c centi
10
-1
tenth d deci
Multiplier Meaning Symbol Prefix
10
1
10
1
10
3
10
3
10
3
How to do Conversions
Step 1: Write down what you are given
Step 2: What are you trying to nd?
12 mm
12 mm = ? km
How to do Conversions
Step 3: Figure out what conversion
factors are needed
Step 4: Set up dimensional analysis
12 mm 1m 1km
1000mm 1000m
mm m km 1000mm = 1m 1000m = 1km
MAKE SURE THE LARGER UNIT IS EQUAL TO ONE
G
IV
E
N
TO TO
F
R
O
M
F
R
O
M
= ?
How to do Conversions
Step 5: Multiply across and divide
down. Cancel out units
Step 6: Put into scientic notation if
needed. CHECK sig gs and UNITS!
G
IV
E
N
TO TO
F
R
O
M
F
R
O
M
= 0.000012 km
12 mm 1m 1km
1000mm 1000m
0.000012 km = 1.2 x 10
-5
km
Signicant Digits (sig gs!)
Measurements are all CERTAIN digits
+ one ESTIMATED digit
When doing calculations using
measurements, you must take sig gs
into account
Your calculations with your data
CANNOT be more certain than your
measurements!
5
Rules for Sig Figs
All non zero numbers are signicant
Zeros may or may not be signicant
How many sig gs:
In 200m?
In 200.0m?
In 205m?
In 0.205km?
Atlantic-Pacic Rule
If the decimal point is ABSENT, count
from the ATLANTIC side (right hand
side)
Begin counting at the FIRST non zero
digit you reach. Count ALL numbers
until the end.
200m 205m
one sig fig three sig figs
100s place is estimated ones place is estimated
Not signicant signicant
Atlantic-Pacic Rule
If the decimal point is PRESENT, count
from the PACIFIC side (left hand side)
Begin counting at the FIRST non zero
digit you reach. Count ALL numbers
until the end.
200.0m 0.205m
four sig figs three sig figs
tenths place is estimated thousandths place is estimated
signicant
signicant
not
signicant
More Sig Fig Rules
Exact numbers (conversions, equalities) DO
NOT have sig gs (ex: 1000m=1km)
Not a measurement, but a denition!
Multiplying and Dividing: answer will have
the same # of sig gs as the measurement
with the LEAST amount of sig gs
Addition and Subtraction: answer is rounded
to the same decimal place as the number
with the LARGEST UNCERTAINTY
ONLY ROUND YOUR FINAL ANSWER!