SCTE Broadband SCTE Broadband

Distribution Specialist Distribution Specialist Distribution Specialist Distribution Specialist

Certification Prep Certification Prep
Presentaion Goals Presentaion Goals
Answer the question "why certify?" Answer the question "why certify?"
Getting Started in SCTE Certification Getting Started in SCTE Certification Getting Started in SCTE Certification Getting Started in SCTE Certification
Prepare
Getting Certified
Staying Certified
Overview BDS SCTE Certification Overview BDS SCTE Certification
HFC Network Segments HFC Network Segments
Hub
Hub
Master Headend
TelecomCenter TelecomCenter
Distribution Distribution Transport Transport
Premises Premises
Hub
Hub
Broadband Premises Broadband Premises
Specialist (BPS) Specialist (BPS) ((REVISED REVISED) )
Technology, Systems, Technology, Systems,
Requirements Requirements
Premises Devices Premises Devices
Installation Installation
Troubleshooting and Troubleshooting and Troubleshooting and Troubleshooting and
Maintenance Maintenance
Standards Standards
Safety Safety
The revised BPS Certifications include 3 Lines of Business: The revised BPS Certifications include 3 Lines of Business:
Video Video Voice Voice Data Data
Broadband Premises Installer (BPI) and Technician (BPT) Broadband Premises Installer (BPI) and Technician (BPT)
Broadband Premises Expert (BPE) Broadband Premises Expert (BPE)
Broadband Distribution Broadband Distribution
Specialist (BDS) Specialist (BDS)
System Architectures System Architectures
Distribution Components Distribution Components
Signal Types Signal Types Signal Types Signal Types
Troubleshooting and Troubleshooting and
Maintenance Maintenance
Construction Construction
Safety Safety
Broadband Transport Broadband Transport
Specialist (BTS) Specialist (BTS)
Fiber Optic Theory Fiber Optic Theory
Optical Optical Transport Transport
Systems Systems
Hub
Systems Systems
Link Performance Link Performance
Troubleshooting and Troubleshooting and
Maintenance Maintenance
Alternative Transport Alternative Transport
Systems Systems
Hub
Hub
Broadband Broadband TelecomCenter TelecomCenter
Specialist (BTCS) Specialist (BTCS)
Baseband Signals Baseband Signals
Signal Reception Signal Reception
Channel Equipment Channel Equipment Channel Equipment Channel Equipment
Tests and Tests and
Measurements Measurements
Facilities Facilities
Endorsements: Endorsements:
Video Video Voice Voice Data Data
Master Headend
SCTE Certifications SCTE Certifications
Master Headend
Hub
Hub
Hub
Master Headend
TelecomCenter
Distribution
Transport
Premises
Broadband Broadband
Telecomm Telecomm
Center Center
Specialist Specialist
Broadband Broadband
Transport Transport
Specialist Specialist
Broadband Broadband
Distribution Distribution
Specialist Specialist
Broadband Broadband
Premises Premises
Specialist (x3) Specialist (x3)
BCT/E Certification (will be retired) BCT/E Certification (will be retired)
Why Certify? Why Certify?
Certification Benefits Both Certification Benefits Both
Individuals Individuals
Our industry Our industry
Why Certify? Why Certify?
What What certification does certification does for for an individual an individual
Professional certification demonstrates Professional certification demonstrates
solid knowledge solid knowledge
Demonstrates Demonstrates drive, self drive, self--discipline, discipline, Demonstrates Demonstrates drive, self drive, self--discipline, discipline,
professionalism professionalism
Career advancement Career advancement
Consistency Consistency -- transportable transportable
Why Certify? Why Certify?
What What certification does certification does for our for our industry industry
SCTE certifications raise the bar on SCTE certifications raise the bar on
technical knowledge technical knowledge
Certification provides a competitive Certification provides a competitive Certification provides a competitive Certification provides a competitive
advantage advantage
Certification inspires the confidence of Certification inspires the confidence of
your customers your customers
Getting Started Getting Started
Preparing to Certify Preparing to Certify
Getting Certified Getting Certified
Staying Certified Staying Certified Staying Certified Staying Certified
Preparing to Certify Preparing to Certify
Study Guides Study Guides Exam Topics Exam Topics
Books, Manuals, and Books, Manuals, and
Personalized Prep Guides Personalized Prep Guides
Jones/NCTI Courses Jones/NCTI Courses Jones/NCTI Courses Jones/NCTI Courses
Corporate Universities Corporate Universities
SCTE Bookstore SCTE Bookstore
Study Groups Study Groups
Individual Mentors Individual Mentors
Getting Certified Getting Certified
Online Online
50 question multiple 50 question multiple--choice exams choice exams
(DVEP currently 100 questions) (DVEP currently 100 questions)
Immediate feedback Immediate feedback Immediate feedback Immediate feedback
Fee per exam Fee per exam
Example Exam Page (next slide) Example Exam Page (next slide)
Staying Certified Staying Certified
Certification Valid for Three Years Certification Valid for Three Years
To Maintain Certification Status: To Maintain Certification Status:
Retake exam
Earn Recertifications Units (RUs) Earn Recertifications Units (RUs)
BDS Sections BDS Sections
Distribution Components Distribution Components
Maintenance & Troubleshooting Maintenance & Troubleshooting
Safety & Construction Safety & Construction Safety & Construction Safety & Construction
Signal Types Signal Types
System Architectures System Architectures
Understanding Frequencies Understanding Frequencies
17
The Radio Frequency (RF) The Radio Frequency (RF)
Spectrum Spectrum
Each electromagnetic wave has an associated Each electromagnetic wave has an associated
wavelength and frequency which are inversely wavelength and frequency which are inversely
related by a simple mathematical formula: related by a simple mathematical formula:
Frequency (f) x Wavelength () = Speed of Light Frequency (f) x Wavelength () = Speed of Light
(c) (c)
18
(c) (c)
The speed of light is a fixed number The speed of light is a fixed number-- --
299,792,458 meters/second or 186,282.4 299,792,458 meters/second or 186,282.4
miles/second in a vacuum. miles/second in a vacuum.
Electromagnetic waves with high frequencies Electromagnetic waves with high frequencies
have short wavelengths and waves with low have short wavelengths and waves with low
frequencies have long wavelengths. frequencies have long wavelengths.
Hertz Hertz
RF signals are typically depicted as RF signals are typically depicted as
sinusoidal (sine) waves that vary in amplitude sinusoidal (sine) waves that vary in amplitude
over time. over time.
19
A frequency of one cycle per second is called A frequency of one cycle per second is called
a hertz. a hertz.
One hertz simply means "one per second" One hertz simply means "one per second"
(1/s). (1/s).
Hertz Hertz
Some of the common frequency nomenclatures Some of the common frequency nomenclatures
that we use in the cable industry are: that we use in the cable industry are:
Kilohertz (KHz) Kilohertz (KHz) = 1,000 cycles/second = 1,000 cycles/second
(One thousand Hertz) (One thousand Hertz)
20
(One thousand Hertz) (One thousand Hertz)
Megahertz (MHz) Megahertz (MHz) = 1,000,000 cycles/second = 1,000,000 cycles/second
(One million Hertz) (One million Hertz)
Gigahertz (GHz) Gigahertz (GHz) = 1,000,000,000 = 1,000,000,000
cycles/second (One billion Hertz) cycles/second (One billion Hertz)
Hertz Hertz
21
Frequency Use Authorization Frequency Use Authorization
The Federal Communications Commission The Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) is a government agency responsible for (FCC) is a government agency responsible for
regulating and assigning frequencies regulating and assigning frequencies
throughout the United States. throughout the United States.
22
throughout the United States. throughout the United States.
Frequency Bands Frequency Bands
Federal Communication Commission (FCC) Federal Communication Commission (FCC)
assigns and regulates frequencies assigns and regulates frequencies
Frequency ranges assigned to radio, television, Frequency ranges assigned to radio, television,
wire, satellite and cable wire, satellite and cable
23
wire, satellite and cable wire, satellite and cable
CATV Networks CATV Networks
CATV signals travel in a closed environment CATV signals travel in a closed environment
over coaxial cable. over coaxial cable.
Compromises in the integrity of the coax plant Compromises in the integrity of the coax plant
could allow RF energy to leak out, or egress could allow RF energy to leak out, or egress
24
could allow RF energy to leak out, or egress could allow RF energy to leak out, or egress
from the cable. from the cable.
Egress is a Latin term which means to exit. Egress is a Latin term which means to exit.
CATV Networks CATV Networks (cont.) (cont.)
Signals leaking out of the system can interfere Signals leaking out of the system can interfere
with licensed users of the airways like air traffic with licensed users of the airways like air traffic
control and public service. control and public service.
Cable operators normally operate the forward Cable operators normally operate the forward
25
Cable operators normally operate the forward Cable operators normally operate the forward
portion of the cable plant within the 50 MHz to 1 portion of the cable plant within the 50 MHz to 1
GHz portion of the spectrum. GHz portion of the spectrum.
The portion of the spectrum occupied by the The portion of the spectrum occupied by the
reverse path is between 5 reverse path is between 5--42 MHz. 42 MHz.
Typical CATV Network Typical CATV Network
Layout Downstream Layout Downstream
26
Return Path Frequencies Return Path Frequencies
Versus Over Versus Over--the the--Air Use Air Use
27
Analog Signal Analog Signal
National TV Standards Committee (NTSC)
establishes television signal structure, which
permits standardized television receivers to be
manufactured.
NTSC requires each channel to be 6 MHz,
28
NTSC requires each channel to be 6 MHz,
divided into separate segments for
Video
Audio
Color
Horizontal sweep information located at specific
points
Digital Signal Digital Signal
Digital refers to a method of encoding
information using a binary system made up
of zeroes and ones.
29
Technology has made it possible to
compress many digital channels into a 6
MHz space.
Anatomy of a 6 MHz Analog Anatomy of a 6 MHz Analog
Channel Channel
Visual Carrier Visual Carrier
Color Color Subcarrier Subcarrier
Aural Carrier Aural Carrier
30
Lower Lower
Channel Channel
Boundary Boundary
Upper Upper
Channel Channel
Boundary Boundary
6 MHz 6 MHz
4.5 MHz 4.5 MHz
3.58 MHz 3.58 MHz
1.25 MHz 1.25 MHz
Actual Snapshot of an Analog Actual Snapshot of an Analog
Channel Channel
31
Network Design and Maps Network Design and Maps
32
Network Design Principles Network Design Principles
In HFC systems, the design focus was on In HFC systems, the design focus was on
cascading amplifiers. cascading amplifiers.
New design strategy is called New design strategy is called power domain power domain
node node (PDN) (PDN) architecture, node size is architecture, node size is
33
node node (PDN) (PDN) architecture, node size is architecture, node size is
determined by power supply capacity not determined by power supply capacity not
amplifier cascade. amplifier cascade.
There is usually one power supply for each There is usually one power supply for each
node. node.
The power supply is usually loaded to 80% The power supply is usually loaded to 80%
capacity. capacity.
Determining Node Size Determining Node Size
When designers use When designers use PDN PDN deign criteria the deign criteria the
primary design consideration for node size is primary design consideration for node size is
power supply capacity. power supply capacity.
However, designers also consider additional However, designers also consider additional
34
However, designers also consider additional However, designers also consider additional
information to determine node size, such as: information to determine node size, such as:
Power supply capacity/ reliability Power supply capacity/ reliability
Amplifier cascade limitations Amplifier cascade limitations
Homes passed Homes passed
The Network Design Process The Network Design Process
The following process describes the steps The following process describes the steps
followed by the network design group to followed by the network design group to
design (or redesign) a broadband network: design (or redesign) a broadband network:
35
Step 1. Perform a walkout.
Step 2. Design the base and routing.
Step 3. Lay out the nodes.
Step 4. Lay out the RF design.
The Network Design Process The Network Design Process
Step 5. Perform an internal quality check. of
initial design.
Step 6. Print network design maps.
Step 7. Construction group performs a
36
Step 7. Construction group performs a
walkout.
Step 8. Construction group builds the network.
Step 9. As built changes made in the network
design system.
Step 10. Final network design maps are released
to operations.
System Map Reading System Map Reading
Key Terms & Reference Materials Key Terms & Reference Materials
Tombstone Tombstone A chart used to display A chart used to display
various information about a node, amplifier, various information about a node, amplifier,
or a line extender. or a line extender.
37
or a line extender. or a line extender.
Power amplifying devices (PADs) and Power amplifying devices (PADs) and
equalizers equalizers PADs and equalizers (EQs) are PADs and equalizers (EQs) are
plug plug--in components used within amplifiers to in components used within amplifiers to
control certain aspects of signals. control certain aspects of signals. PADs and PADs and
EQs will be discussed in further detail in EQs will be discussed in further detail in
other chapters of the HFC technician other chapters of the HFC technician
program. program.
HFC Network Models HFC Network Models
38
CATV Network CATV Network
Headend Headend The primary facility of any cable The primary facility of any cable
network. network.
Node Node A device that converts the light onto the A device that converts the light onto the
fiber optic network. fiber optic network.
39
fiber optic network. fiber optic network.
Amplifier Amplifier Boost the RF signal level along the Boost the RF signal level along the
main coaxial cables. main coaxial cables.
Tap Tap Located on the feeder line to provide Located on the feeder line to provide
connection to customers drop. connection to customers drop.
CATV Network CATV Network (cont.) (cont.)
Drop cable Drop cable Transport RF CATV signals from Transport RF CATV signals from
the tap to the in the tap to the in--house wiring. house wiring.
Customer premises equipment (CPE) Customer premises equipment (CPE)
40
Customer premises equipment (CPE) Customer premises equipment (CPE)
Consumers electronics used to provide video, Consumers electronics used to provide video,
audio, telephony, and high audio, telephony, and high--speed Internet speed Internet
services for the customer. services for the customer.
HFC Network Model HFC Network Model
Optical transport Optical transport
Headend to hub
Point-to-point
41
Point-to-point
Optical distribution Optical distribution
Headend or hub to node
Point-to-multipoint
HFC Network Model HFC Network Model (cont.) (cont.)
Coaxial distribution Coaxial distribution
Service area
Express plant
42
Express plant
Feeder plant
Subscriber drop Subscriber drop
Tap to customer premises
Characteristics of the HFC Characteristics of the HFC
Network Network
Carry RF signals (5 MHz up to 1 GHz) Carry RF signals (5 MHz up to 1 GHz)
Carry A/C power Carry A/C power
43
Impedance of 75 ohms to prevent Impedance of 75 ohms to prevent
ingress/egress ingress/egress
Unity gain Unity gain
HFC Network Segments
44
HFC Network Segments HFC Network Segments (cont.) (cont.)
Segment 1 Segment 1 -- Optical Transport Optical Transport
Headend-to-hub optical link
Carry signals 30 to 40 miles without
degradation
45
degradation
HFC Network Segments (cont.)
Segment 2 Segment 2 Optical Distribution Optical Distribution
Hub-to-node link
Range from 2 to 4 miles
46
Almost exclusively analog amplitude
modulation (AM) laser
Fiber-to-feeder (FTF)
Fiber-to-the-serving area (FSA)
Optical service area (OSA)
Coaxial Distribution Model
47
Optical service area (OSA)
Fiber to the home (FTH)
The coaxial plant consists of two segment
Express
Feeder
Coaxial Distribution Model
48
Segment 3 Segment 3 Express Coaxial Plant Express Coaxial Plant
Typical short cascade of amplifiers (1 to 3)
HFC Network Segments
49
Typical covers less than 2000 feet
Key to the future upgradeability of the HFC
network
Segment 4 Segment 4 Feeder Coaxial Plant Feeder Coaxial Plant
Line extender amplifier L/E commonly a high
output level amplifier delivers the signals to
HFC Network Segments
50
output level amplifier delivers the signals to
the passive portion of the network and
eventually to the customer premises.
Passive feeder segment is the last link to the
customer premises
Segment 5 Segment 5 Subscriber Drop Subscriber Drop
The portion from the tap to the customer
premises
HFC Network Segments
51
premises
The portion from the side of the customer
premises to the subscriber terminal
Other Architectures Other Architectures
Fiber Deep Fiber Deep
No RF Amplifiers after the node
Fiber is within a few hundred feet of the
52
Fiber is within a few hundred feet of the
customer
Return path is digitized at the node
Ability to implement targeted FTTH to
specific customers on a node by node basis
Standard HFC Network Standard HFC Network
53
2 power supplies
27 RF amplifiers
1 optical node
595 homes passed 79 HPM
7.49 miles UG
595 Homes per node
Fiber Deep Network Fiber Deep Network
54
1.1 miles per node
7 optical nodes
595 homes passed 79 HPM
7.49 miles UG
85 homes per node average
1 power supply
FTTH still converts fiber to coax
FTTH takes the fiber to the house demark or
NIU
Fiber To The Home FTTH
55
Customer will own the drop wire
Could be cases where our competitor takes
the drop.
Our policy to make sure rectify the issue
without putting the customer in the middle!
Typical NIU used for FTTH Typical NIU used for FTTH
56
Signal Types Signal Types
57
What is Modulation? What is Modulation?
Modulation is the process by which Modulation is the process by which
intelligence signals are added to an RF intelligence signals are added to an RF
carrier carrier
58
Amplitude Modulation (AM) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied
in direct proportion to that of a modulating in direct proportion to that of a modulating
signal signal
59
signal signal
Video carriers use amplitude modulation Video carriers use amplitude modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM) Frequency Modulation (FM)
The frequency of the carrier varies with the The frequency of the carrier varies with the
content signal level content signal level
60
Frequency modulation is more robust Frequency modulation is more robust
against interference against interference
This is why FM was chosen for FM Radio This is why FM was chosen for FM Radio
Phase Modulation (PM) Phase Modulation (PM)
The phase of the carrier wave is varied in The phase of the carrier wave is varied in
accordance with an input signal accordance with an input signal
Phase modulation is also a special case of Phase modulation is also a special case of
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Phase modulation is also a special case of Phase modulation is also a special case of
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
Phase Phase--Shift Keying (PSK) Shift Keying (PSK)
PSK refers to the phase modulation by a PSK refers to the phase modulation by a
simple signal with a discrete number of states, simple signal with a discrete number of states,
such as in Morse code or radio teletype such as in Morse code or radio teletype
62
such as in Morse code or radio teletype such as in Morse code or radio teletype
applications applications
Analog Analog
Analog signals utilize amplitude, phase, Analog signals utilize amplitude, phase,
and frequency and frequency
Video carrier Video carrier-- --amplitude amplitude modulated modulated
63
Audio carrier Audio carrier-- --frequency frequency modulated modulated
Color burst carrier Color burst carrier-- --phase phase modulated modulated
Digital Signals Digital Signals
Digital signals are transmitted using binary Digital signals are transmitted using binary
code that has two data levels, on or off. code that has two data levels, on or off.
Using binary code, Using binary code, you can you can compress the compress the
64
Using binary code, Using binary code, you can you can compress the compress the
signal within the bandwidth of a single signal within the bandwidth of a single
analog channel to a 12:1 compression analog channel to a 12:1 compression
ratio. ratio.
Sampling Sampling
The process of determining the amplitude of The process of determining the amplitude of
an RF signal at fixed points in time. an RF signal at fixed points in time.
65
Quantizing Quantizing
The process of recording each sample as a The process of recording each sample as a
number corresponding to the amplitude of the number corresponding to the amplitude of the
signal at the time of sampling. signal at the time of sampling.
66
signal at the time of sampling. signal at the time of sampling.
Encoding Encoding
The process of converting the quantizing The process of converting the quantizing
samples into binary data or bits that can be samples into binary data or bits that can be
stored or transmitted. stored or transmitted.
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stored or transmitted. stored or transmitted.
Digital Compression Digital Compression
Intraframe Intraframe (I (I--frame): This frame contains all of frame): This frame contains all of
the information needed to complete a frame of the information needed to complete a frame of
video video
Predictive Predictive (P (P--frame): Contains the difference frame): Contains the difference
68
Predictive Predictive (P (P--frame): Contains the difference frame): Contains the difference
between the actual image and the predicted between the actual image and the predicted
image image
Bi Bi--directional Predictive directional Predictive (B (B--frame): Uses frame): Uses
motion motion--compensation prediction from past and compensation prediction from past and
future reference pictures future reference pictures
QPSK QPSK
Quadrature Phase Shift Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying Keying
Also known as 4 Also known as 4--QAM, uses two carriers QAM, uses two carriers
with identical frequency, phase shifted 90 with identical frequency, phase shifted 90
69
with identical frequency, phase shifted 90 with identical frequency, phase shifted 90
degrees apart, and two possible amplitude degrees apart, and two possible amplitude
levels levels
Being phased out in favor of 16 Being phased out in favor of 16--QAM QAM
modem signals modem signals
QAM QAM
Quadrature Amplitude Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation Modulation
Uses phase shifting like QPSK, but also Uses phase shifting like QPSK, but also
modulates the amplitude of the signal as modulates the amplitude of the signal as
well well
70
well well
Common types include 64 Common types include 64--QAM and 256 QAM and 256--
QAM and is typically used for HSD QAM and is typically used for HSD
downstream traffic downstream traffic
Distribution Network Distribution Network
71
System Performance: System Performance:
Concepts and Issues Concepts and Issues
Perfect system
The perfect broadband system would yield uniform
signal quality and thus service quality at all
72
signal quality and thus service quality at all
frequencies.
Perfect system
But the real world does not work that way. Every
component affects the system flatness differently.
72
Cable Issues Cable Issues
Simplest component in the system
Loss increases as signal frequency increases.
Non-Linear cable loss
73
Non-Linear cable loss
Natural (and unavoidable) characteristic of coax
Equalizers are needed to compensate for this
effect.
73
Hardware Issues Hardware Issues
Every components return loss and flatness
characteristic affect a systems peak to valley
response, often referred to as a signature
contribution.
74
74
contribution.
Return Loss
Flatness
Network Integrity Network Integrity
Connectors Connectors
Housings Housings
Cable spans Cable spans
75
75
Corrosions and loosening Corrosions and loosening
These issues can cause the following problems These issues can cause the following problems
Loss of ground integrity
Loss of signal
Suckout
Seizure
assembly loss
Resonant peaks
Network Integrity Network Integrity (cont.) (cont.)
Suckout
An extreme loss of energy over a narrow
frequency range.
76
Seizure assembly loss
Ends to attenuate lower frequencies more than
higher frequencies
76
Network Integrity Network Integrity (cont.) (cont.)
Resonate peak
May form as a result of constructive reflected
energy
77
The preceding effects are extreme examples
of what may result from inadequate work
practices or from aging equipment. They can
compromise system integrity and allow
leakage (ingress/egress).
77
Coaxial Cable Coaxial Cable (cont.) (cont.)
Coaxial cable - types
Armored Sheath
Flooded / Underground
Messenger
78
Messenger
Coaxial cable selection
During the design phase several other factors
such as distance and cable loss characteristics
must be evaluated in order to determine proper
cable size.
78
Skin Effect Skin Effect
Higher frequencies travel closer to the
outer diameter or the skin of the
center conductor.
79
center conductor.
Bending Radius of the Cable Bending Radius of the Cable
Bending radius is specific to the size and
manufacturer of the coaxial cable.
The radii can be obtained in your cable
80
The radii can be obtained in your cable
hand book
Always use an approved bending board
Powers of 10 Powers of 10
81
Positive & Negative Powers Positive & Negative Powers
of 10 of 10
Examples of positive powers of 10 Examples of positive powers of 10
82
Examples of negative powers of 10 Examples of negative powers of 10
Characteristics of Scientific Characteristics of Scientific
Notation Notation
Numbers written in scientific notation have these Numbers written in scientific notation have these
characteristics: characteristics:
The base number is always written with only one The base number is always written with only one
83
The base number is always written with only one The base number is always written with only one
digit to the left of the decimal place (1 through digit to the left of the decimal place (1 through
9). 9).
The base number is multiplied by 10 raised to a The base number is multiplied by 10 raised to a
particular power. particular power.
Characteristics of Scientific Characteristics of Scientific
Notation Notation
Converting from scientific to standard Converting from scientific to standard
notation notation
84
Converting from standard to scientific Converting from standard to scientific
notation notation
Prefixes for Large Prefixes for Large
and Small Numbers and Small Numbers
Kilo K frequency, stated as Kilo K frequency, stated as kilohertz kilohertz (KHz) (KHz)
Mega M frequency, stated as Mega M frequency, stated as megahertz megahertz (MHz) (MHz)
85
Mega M frequency, stated as Mega M frequency, stated as megahertz megahertz (MHz) (MHz)
Giga G frequency, stated as Giga G frequency, stated as gigahertz gigahertz (GHz) (GHz)
Tera T frequency, stated as Tera T frequency, stated as terahertz terahertz (THz) (THz)
Prefixes for Large Prefixes for Large
and Small Numbers and Small Numbers (cont.) (cont.)
Milli voltage, stated as Milli voltage, stated as millivolts millivolts (mV) (mV)
Micro voltage, stated as Micro voltage, stated as microvolts microvolts ((V) V)
86
Nano voltage, stated as Nano voltage, stated as nanovolts nanovolts (nV) (nV)
Pico capacitance, stated as Pico capacitance, stated as picofarads picofarads (pf) (pf)
Ratios Ratios
Examples of ratios Examples of ratios
87
Finding the unknown term Finding the unknown term
Decibels Decibels
The Bel The Bel
The decibel The decibel
88
Definition of the decibel Definition of the decibel
Power ratio Power ratio
Basic Electronic Principles Basic Electronic Principles
Conductors Conductors
Voltage Voltage
89
Voltage Voltage
Resistance Resistance
Ohms Law Ohms Law
Basic Electronic Principles Basic Electronic Principles (cont.) (cont.)
I (current) I (current) equals E (voltage) divided equals E (voltage) divided
by R (resistance by R (resistance))
90
R (resistance) R (resistance) equals E (voltage) equals E (voltage)
divided by I (current) divided by I (current)
E E (voltage (voltage) equals I (current ) equals I (current) )
multiplied multiplied by R (resistance) by R (resistance)
Review of Basic Circuits Review of Basic Circuits
Series Circuits Series Circuits
R1+ R2 = Rt
Review of Basic Circuits Review of Basic Circuits (cont.) (cont.)
Parallel Circuits Parallel Circuits
93
Review of Basic Circuits Review of Basic Circuits (cont.) (cont.)
Series/Parallel Circuits Series/Parallel Circuits
94
Review of Basic Circuits Review of Basic Circuits (cont.) (cont.)
Voltage Drops Voltage Drops
Calculate the voltage drops and current draw across the Calculate the voltage drops and current draw across the
circuit circuit
95
Review of Basic Circuits Review of Basic Circuits (cont.) (cont.)
Decibel Millivolts (dBmV) Decibel Millivolts (dBmV)
Measuring Signals Measuring Signals
One dBmV indicates an absolute signal power One dBmV indicates an absolute signal power
level on a logarithmic scale with 0 dBmV level on a logarithmic scale with 0 dBmV
96
level on a logarithmic scale with 0 dBmV level on a logarithmic scale with 0 dBmV
representing 1 mV across a 75 impedance. representing 1 mV across a 75 impedance.
Essential Power Concepts Essential Power Concepts
Any Any doubling doubling of power is represented of power is represented
by a by a +3 dB gain +3 dB gain..
97
by a by a +3 dB gain +3 dB gain..
Any Any halving halving of power is represented of power is represented
by a by a --3 dB loss 3 dB loss..
Essential Voltage Concepts Essential Voltage Concepts
(cont.) (cont.)
Any Any doubling doubling of voltage is represented of voltage is represented
by a by a +6 dB gain +6 dB gain..
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by a by a +6 dB gain +6 dB gain..
Any Any halving halving of voltage is represented of voltage is represented
by a by a --6 dB loss 6 dB loss
Distribution Cable Loss Distribution Cable Loss
Every type of cable affects signal loss Every type of cable affects signal loss
differently. differently.
99
differently. differently.
Ratios are used to determine the amount Ratios are used to determine the amount
of loss for a specific amount of cable. of loss for a specific amount of cable.
Signal Level Calculations Signal Level Calculations
The method of calculating signal levels in The method of calculating signal levels in
the distribution can be done at any point in the distribution can be done at any point in
the system. Once the cable loss is the system. Once the cable loss is
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the system. Once the cable loss is the system. Once the cable loss is
calculated, use addition and subtraction to calculated, use addition and subtraction to
find the level at any point in the system. find the level at any point in the system.
Amplifiers in Conventional Amplifiers in Conventional
Cable Architecture Cable Architecture
Active devices
Nodes
Amplifiers
101
Amplifiers
Trunk amplifier
Bridging amplifier
Line extender (LEs)
101
Physical Description of Physical Description of
a Broadband Amplifier a Broadband Amplifier
Push/pull
Feed forward
102
Power doubling
Note: Note: Another Important component found in every amplifier is the DC Another Important component found in every amplifier is the DC
Power Pack. Power Pack.
102
Older-style Amplifier Components Newer-style Amplifier Components
Housing Housing
Baseplate (also called a motherboard) A single module
Plug-in modules

The Amplifier Housing The Amplifier Housing
Lid
Input and output connections
Fins/heat sink
103
Fins/heat sink
Gasket
Mesh/RFI gasket
Bolts
103
Tightening the Amplifier Lid Tightening the Amplifier Lid
Sequence and torque for each amplifier is
listed in the manufacturers specifications
Old-Style interior amplifier components
104
Old-Style interior amplifier components
Newer-style interior amplifier component
104
How an Amplifier Works How an Amplifier Works
Note:
Return bandwidth varies by system. Your
system may operate at 5-45 MHz, 5-40 MHz,
105
system may operate at 5-45 MHz, 5-40 MHz,
5-42 MHz, or 5-30MHz. Check with your
supervisor for the correct specifications for
you system.
105
Automatic Gain Control Automatic Gain Control
AGC Automatic gain control
TLC - Thermal level control
ALS Automatic level and slope control
106
ALS Automatic level and slope control
Note: Thermal controls are also key components in the
nodes to compensate for air temperature changes inside
the housing.
106
Key Components of an Key Components of an
Amplifier Amplifier
Hybrids (gain stages)
Diplex filter
RF/AC diplex filter
107
RF/AC diplex filter
Input test point
Output test point
Input and interstage PADs
Input and interstage equalizers
107
Key Components of an Key Components of an
Amplifier Amplifier
Input and interstage equalizers
Power pack
AGC/ASC/ALS
108
AGC/ASC/ALS
Thermal Control
Shunts/fuses/power blocks
108
Coaxial Cable Coaxial Cable
and Broadband Amplifiers and Broadband Amplifiers
Characteristics of coaxial cable
Attenuation
Tilt
109
Definition of attenuation and tilt
Tilt = Slope
Conventions for citing levels in the network
Single RF Level = High channel (e.g. 116 in 750 MHz
system
High and low channel (e.g. 46/35) 46 is the high
channel (ch.116) and 35 is the low channel (ch.2)
109
Coaxial Cable Coaxial Cable
and Broadband Amplifiers and Broadband Amplifiers (cont) (cont)
Unity gain
Amplifier spacing
Using PADs to achieve unity gain
110
Using PADs to achieve unity gain
Attenuator PADs
110
CAUTION: Removing the forward PAD will halt forward
service until the PAD is replaced. The is true for the
reverse PAD as well. Follow your systems guidelines
for adjusting levels.
Using Equalizers Using Equalizers
to Achieve Unity Gain to Achieve Unity Gain
CAUTION: Removing equalizers in an active amplifier will
halt forward service until the EQ is replaced. Follow your
systems guidelines for adjusting EQ levels.
111
systems guidelines for adjusting EQ levels.
Equalizers
Equalizers labeled differently
There are two ways of labeling equalizers:
By the amount of tilt offset the EQ actually provides
dB cable length at the high channel for which the EQ
compensates
111
Using Equalizers Using Equalizers
to Achieve Unity Gain to Achieve Unity Gain
Cable attenuation and frequency
Cable loss ratio

112
The relationship between the cables attenuation
of a higher frequency to the attenuation of a
lower frequency.
Equalizer attenuation curve
Equalizer function
112
Using Equalizers Using Equalizers
to Achieve Unity Gain to Achieve Unity Gain
PAD and equalizer practice
Summary Balancing an amplifier with manual
gain and slope controls
113
gain and slope controls
For exact procedures and setting, refer to amplifier
manufacturers specifications.
Summary Balancing an amplifier with
automatic gain and slope controls
Some amplifiers are balanced by using fixed value
plug-ins for gain and equalization rather than by
using variable controls.
113
System Sweep Process System Sweep Process
Definition
Equipment
Procedures
114
Procedures
Installing the sweep transmitter
114
System Sweep Process System Sweep Process (cont.) (cont.)
Reverse fiber receivers
Sweeping a fiber node
Sweep and balance
115
Balancing the node
Taking references
Raw sweep (forward path)
Referencing (forward path)
Balance and sweep forward path
Sweep the return
115
System Sweep Process System Sweep Process (cont.) (cont.)
Analyzing a sweep trace
Suckout
Roll-off low end of the passband
116
Roll-off low end of the passband
Roll-off high end
Standing waves
116
Amplifiers Amplifiers
Frequency response
AC power direction
Amplifier power direction
117
Amplifier power direction
Setting up and amplifier for proper power
direction
117
Amplifiers Amplifiers (cont.) (cont.)
Fusing an amplifier output
Blocking power
Checking an active devices vital signs
118
Checking an active devices vital signs
Check for signal leakage
Check the physical characteristics
Measure AC and DC voltage
Measure RF signal
118
Line Extender Setup Line Extender Setup
All service interruptions must be All service interruptions must be
within maintenance window. within maintenance window.
Verify LE AC is set for pass or blocked based Verify LE AC is set for pass or blocked based
on design. Look for bucking AC and the setup on design. Look for bucking AC and the setup
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on design. Look for bucking AC and the setup on design. Look for bucking AC and the setup
of surrounding amplifiers before making any of surrounding amplifiers before making any
changes. changes.
Measure AC and DC and verify that the levels Measure AC and DC and verify that the levels
fall within specification. fall within specification.
Line Extender Setup Line Extender Setup (cont.) (cont.)
Place station in manual mode. (ALC or AGC Place station in manual mode. (ALC or AGC
turned off) turned off)
Verify minimum full gain of the station. Verify minimum full gain of the station.
Remember the total possible gain will be Remember the total possible gain will be
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Remember the total possible gain will be Remember the total possible gain will be
larger than operating gain. The reserved gain larger than operating gain. The reserved gain
is used by the ALC or AGC to give back during is used by the ALC or AGC to give back during
higher temperatures. higher temperatures.
Line Extender Line Extender (cont.) (cont.)
Set EQ value in accordance with design, Set EQ value in accordance with design,
manufacture specification, and first hybrid chip. manufacture specification, and first hybrid chip.
Calculated value should be within Calculated value should be within 0.5 dB of 0.5 dB of
actual value. Remember that in some LE actual value. Remember that in some LE
designs, the input EQ contributes to part of the designs, the input EQ contributes to part of the
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designs, the input EQ contributes to part of the designs, the input EQ contributes to part of the
total output tilt. total output tilt.
Set input PAD value so that it combines with the Set input PAD value so that it combines with the
total input loss at the highest frequency and total input loss at the highest frequency and
equals the operating gain of the station. Total equals the operating gain of the station. Total
input loss + PAD = operating gain input loss + PAD = operating gain
Line Extender Line Extender (cont.) (cont.)
Adjust the ALC/AGC (if so equipped) according Adjust the ALC/AGC (if so equipped) according
to the LE specification. Keep the outside to the LE specification. Keep the outside
temperature in mind. temperature in mind.
122
Passive Devices Passive Devices
RF Line Splitter: Divides input power into two or RF Line Splitter: Divides input power into two or
more outputs. more outputs.
Directional Couplers: Divides input power into Directional Couplers: Divides input power into
unequal or unbalanced outputs. unequal or unbalanced outputs.
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unequal or unbalanced outputs. unequal or unbalanced outputs.
Power Inserter: Used to combine or separate Power Inserter: Used to combine or separate
line power supply (AC) and RF signals. line power supply (AC) and RF signals.
Passive Devices Passive Devices
Multi Multi--Taps: A directional coupler with one or Taps: A directional coupler with one or
more splitter on the high loss side to serve more splitter on the high loss side to serve
individual customers. individual customers.
In Line Equalizer: Use just like an equalizer in an In Line Equalizer: Use just like an equalizer in an
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In Line Equalizer: Use just like an equalizer in an In Line Equalizer: Use just like an equalizer in an
amplifier. This is a passive devise used to amplifier. This is a passive devise used to
attenuate a certain section of the bandwidth attenuate a certain section of the bandwidth
usually the lower frequencies. usually the lower frequencies.
Physical Characteristics Physical Characteristics
Housing and face plate Housing and face plate
Weatherproof gasket and RF Weatherproof gasket and RF
Integrity gasket (RFI) Integrity gasket (RFI)
Notice isolation and insertion Notice isolation and insertion
loss loss
125
Bypass Bar Bypass Bar
126
Socket for Return Conditioner Socket for Return Conditioner
127
RF Integrity Gasket and RF Integrity Gasket and
Rubber Weather Gasket Rubber Weather Gasket
128
Seizure Screw Corrosion Seizure Screw Corrosion
129
Voltage Measurement from Voltage Measurement from
Tap Tap
130
Current Measurement from Current Measurement from
Tap Tap
131
Physical Characteristics Physical Characteristics
of Power Inserters of Power Inserters
132
Types of Taps Types of Taps
Feed-Through and Terminating Taps
133
Application Criteria Application Criteria
Selecting the Selecting the Number of Tap Ports Number of Tap Ports
134
Selecting Tap Value Selecting Tap Value
Calculating Tap Signal Levels Calculating Tap Signal Levels
135
Return Path Return Path
136
Frequency Allocation Frequency Allocation
137
Services using the Return Services using the Return
138
Telephone
High-speed Data (HSD)
IPPV (Impulse Pay-per-View)
Status monitoring
VOD (Video on Demand)
IPG (Interactive Program Guide)
Upstream Allocations
5 MHz 12 MHz
13 MHz
20 MHz 42 MHz
50 MHz
26.975 MHz
29.75 MHz
139
8 to 12 MHz
13 to 20 MHz
20 to 42 MHz
Motorola Upstream Traffic
12 to 13 MHz
Status Monitoring
SA Upstream Traffic
CMTS Traffic
CB & HAM Radio Spectrum
50 MHz
Should not exceed 40 MHz due to Diplex Filtering
Off Off--air Signals Using air Signals Using
Return Path Frequencies Return Path Frequencies
140
Ham Radio Ham Radio
141
CB Radio CB Radio
142
Impulse/Electrical Noise Impulse/Electrical Noise
143
Ingress/Noise Over Time Ingress/Noise Over Time
144
Return Path Signal Formats Return Path Signal Formats
Telephone Signal on the Return Path Telephone Signal on the Return Path
145
HSD (DOCSIS) Signal HSD (DOCSIS) Signal
on Return Path on Return Path (cont.) (cont.)
DOCSIS 1.1 included upgrades to launch VoIP DOCSIS 1.1 included upgrades to launch VoIP
telephony telephony
146
DoCSIS DoCSIS 3.0 will allow us to offer similar data 3.0 will allow us to offer similar data
rates to rates to Verizons Verizons FiOS FiOS or other FTTH operators or other FTTH operators
CM
DOCSIS Overview DOCSIS Overview
New Services
Opportunities
DOCSIS
CableHome
HVAC control
Fire sense & control
Security
Air quality monitoring
Child monitoring
Energy management,
etc.
PacketCable
MPEG
Services
CM
CM CMTS
CM
CM
Operator
Operator Core
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CM
CM
Aggregation Network Access Network Core Network
Operator administered
Remote file
sharing
Shared calendar
Unified messaging
Managed services
CPE Headend Backend
IP Services
CM
CM
CM
CM
CMTS
CMTS
CM
Operator
Aggregation
network
Operator Core
Backbone
Review of Return Path Setup Review of Return Path Setup
Unlike the forward path, where amplifiers are Unlike the forward path, where amplifiers are
set up to compensate for loss that has set up to compensate for loss that has
occurred between it and the previous amplifier occurred between it and the previous amplifier
upstream, on the return path the opposite is upstream, on the return path the opposite is
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upstream, on the return path the opposite is upstream, on the return path the opposite is
true. A return amplifier is set up to compensate true. A return amplifier is set up to compensate
for the loss between it and the next amplifier. for the loss between it and the next amplifier.
Review of Return Path Setup Review of Return Path Setup
(cont.) (cont.)
149
Unity Gain on the HFC Unity Gain on the HFC
Network Network
150
Unity Gain Reference Points Unity Gain Reference Points
Using the reverse telemetry level recorded Using the reverse telemetry level recorded
during the reverse sweep reference at the node, during the reverse sweep reference at the node,
a technician can balance the reverse amplifiers a technician can balance the reverse amplifiers
for unity gain by PADing at the reverse output of for unity gain by PADing at the reverse output of
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for unity gain by PADing at the reverse output of for unity gain by PADing at the reverse output of
the amplifier to match the telemetry level the amplifier to match the telemetry level
recorded at the node. recorded at the node.
Unity Gain Reference Points Unity Gain Reference Points
(cont.) (cont.)
152
Raw Sweep (Reverse Path) Raw Sweep (Reverse Path)
The most efficient way of aligning the coaxial The most efficient way of aligning the coaxial
portion reverse plant is through the use of a portion reverse plant is through the use of a
sweep. During this process you can align the sweep. During this process you can align the
reverse amplifier levels and also test the reverse amplifier levels and also test the
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reverse amplifier levels and also test the reverse amplifier levels and also test the
frequency response of the coaxial plant. frequency response of the coaxial plant.
Raw Sweep (Reverse Path) Raw Sweep (Reverse Path)
(cont.) (cont.)
154
Referencing Reverse Path Referencing Reverse Path
155
Reverse Sweep Rule of Thumb Reverse Sweep Rule of Thumb
PAD for telemetry or reference PAD for telemetry or reference matching matching
telemetry/reference level will ensure proper telemetry/reference level will ensure proper
return alignment. return alignment.
156
EQ for flatness EQ for flatness use the return equalizer to use the return equalizer to
flatten response. This has a similar affect as a flatten response. This has a similar affect as a
forward EQ has. forward EQ has.
Exercise Exercise Modem Output Modem Output
Level Level
The output level of the modem or other reverse
transmitting devices is determined by four main
factors
Drop system and splitter flat loss
157
Drop system and splitter flat loss
Tap loss
Feeder system cable losses and passive
device insertion loss
Minimum reverse input to the first active
Exercise Exercise Modem Output Modem Output
Level Level (cont.) (cont.)
158
Dynamic Range Dynamic Range
Reverse transmitting devices typically have a Reverse transmitting devices typically have a
maximum output level of 55 to 60 maximum output level of 55 to 60 dBmV dBmV. It is . It is
desirable for these devices to transmit in the desirable for these devices to transmit in the
upper end of their dynamic range. upper end of their dynamic range.
159
upper end of their dynamic range. upper end of their dynamic range.
Why is that desirable Why is that desirable??
Dynamic Range Dynamic Range (cont.) (cont.)
Reverse transmitting devices typically have a Reverse transmitting devices typically have a
Dynamic Output Range of 25 to 60 dBmV (this Dynamic Output Range of 25 to 60 dBmV (this
varies by device). varies by device).
160
The actual output level of the CPE is The actual output level of the CPE is
determined by the needs at the headend determined by the needs at the headend
receiving device. This is also the reason there receiving device. This is also the reason there
is no AGC necessary in the return amplifiers. is no AGC necessary in the return amplifiers.
Reverse Tap Port Window Reverse Tap Port Window
161
Using Reverse Conditioning Using Reverse Conditioning
162
Transmit Levels Transmit Levels
without Reverse Input PADs without Reverse Input PADs
163
Transmit Levels Transmit Levels
Using Reverse Input PADs Using Reverse Input PADs
164
Check your local design and regional policy before
adding or changing system PADing.
Reverse Alignment Reverse Alignment
It is critical to follow equipment and system It is critical to follow equipment and system
design parameters design parameters
It is critical to understand the test point It is critical to understand the test point
165
It is critical to understand the test point It is critical to understand the test point
placement within the amplifier design to placement within the amplifier design to
understand the proper injection/telemetry understand the proper injection/telemetry
level to arrive at the hybrid with the proper level to arrive at the hybrid with the proper
levels levels
Reverse Alignment Reverse Alignment Inputs Inputs
Specified to the Reverse Specified to the Reverse
Hybrid Hybrid
This illustrates a possible design flaw due to the Hybrid
requiring 19 dBmV.
166
Thermal Noise Thermal Noise
Thermal Noise is the noise energy generated by the Thermal Noise is the noise energy generated by the
random motion of electrons. In HFC networks, most random motion of electrons. In HFC networks, most
thermal noise is produced by active elements, like thermal noise is produced by active elements, like
amplifiers and laser transmitters. The amount of thermal amplifiers and laser transmitters. The amount of thermal
noise in a system is directly proportional to the number of noise in a system is directly proportional to the number of
167
noise in a system is directly proportional to the number of noise in a system is directly proportional to the number of
active elements involved, that is, more amplifiers results in active elements involved, that is, more amplifiers results in
more noise. more noise.
Noise Accumulation: Forward Noise Accumulation: Forward
168
In the forward portion of the HFC network, the total amount In the forward portion of the HFC network, the total amount
of noise present is the sum of all the noise contributed by of noise present is the sum of all the noise contributed by
each active element through which the signal passes. The each active element through which the signal passes. The
C/N ratio for Amplifier #3, in the above diagram, would be C/N ratio for Amplifier #3, in the above diagram, would be
based only on the noise contributed by Amplifiers 1, 2, and based only on the noise contributed by Amplifiers 1, 2, and
3. The noise produced by amplifiers #4 and #5 have no 3. The noise produced by amplifiers #4 and #5 have no
impact on the output of Amplifier #3. impact on the output of Amplifier #3.
Energy Distribution Energy Distribution Energy Distribution Energy Distribution
Forward Path Signal Forward Path Signal
169
Energy Accumulation Energy Accumulation Energy Accumulation Energy Accumulation
Return Path Signal Return Path Signal
170
Noise Accumulation: Return Noise Accumulation: Return
Thermal noise and ingress in the return path accumulates Thermal noise and ingress in the return path accumulates
from all of the active elements in a particular network area. from all of the active elements in a particular network area.
The total noise present at the Primary Hub side of Amplifier The total noise present at the Primary Hub side of Amplifier
#1 will be the sum of the noise produced by amplifiers 1, 2, #1 will be the sum of the noise produced by amplifiers 1, 2,
3, 4, and 5. 3, 4, and 5.
171
3, 4, and 5. 3, 4, and 5.
Clean Noise Floor Clean Noise Floor
172
Ingress Examples Ingress Examples
173
Laser Clipping Laser Clipping
The screenshot below shows excessive ingress with some common The screenshot below shows excessive ingress with some common
path distortions. As technicians in the field become familiar with path distortions. As technicians in the field become familiar with
tracking and repairing reverse path ingress they will sometimes see a tracking and repairing reverse path ingress they will sometimes see a
pattern of ingress types due to surrounding conditions such as ham pattern of ingress types due to surrounding conditions such as ham
radio operators. In a neighborhood, a problem may be addressed one radio operators. In a neighborhood, a problem may be addressed one
day only to come back another day with the same signature but from a day only to come back another day with the same signature but from a
174
day only to come back another day with the same signature but from a day only to come back another day with the same signature but from a
different cause. Excessive levels of ingress can overdrive (clip) the different cause. Excessive levels of ingress can overdrive (clip) the
return laser effecting the entire node. return laser effecting the entire node.
Common path distortions Common path distortions
(CPD) (CPD)
Common path distortion Common path distortion-- --sometimes called common sometimes called common
path inter path inter--modulation distortion is generally created at a modulation distortion is generally created at a
dissimilar metals interface in the signal path. dissimilar metals interface in the signal path.
The downstream carriers passing through this non The downstream carriers passing through this non--
linear diode like junction create second and third order linear diode like junction create second and third order
175
linear diode like junction create second and third order linear diode like junction create second and third order
distortions (beats) that appear in the RF signal path, distortions (beats) that appear in the RF signal path,
especially the upstream. especially the upstream.
Downstream RF levels that are too high often will Downstream RF levels that are too high often will
aggravate CPD aggravate CPD-- --definitely a good reason to keep the definitely a good reason to keep the
forward plant properly aligned! forward plant properly aligned!
Common Path Distortions Common Path Distortions
(CPD) (CPD)
176
Typical plant contact points where Typical plant contact points where
dissimilar metals contribute to CPD dissimilar metals contribute to CPD
Common Path Distortions Common Path Distortions
(CPD) (CPD)
177
CPD will generate a spike approximately every 6 MHz.
Electrical Frequency Electrical Frequency
Interference Interference
178
Poor Termination or Improper Poor Termination or Improper
PADing PADing
Poor termination may cause a Poor termination may cause a
reverse path signature like the reverse path signature like the
one shown. Be sure to one shown. Be sure to
terminate all end terminate all end--of of--line line
coaxial cable as well as coaxial cable as well as
unused amplifier ports. This is unused amplifier ports. This is
179
unused amplifier ports. This is unused amplifier ports. This is
extremely important to extremely important to
maintain reverse path services. maintain reverse path services.
An elevated noise signature An elevated noise signature
such as the one shown may such as the one shown may
also indicate improper PADing also indicate improper PADing
in the field. Take a reverse in the field. Take a reverse
sweep reference at the node sweep reference at the node
and balance the RF return. and balance the RF return.
Diplex Filter Diplex Filter
180
The reverse path screenshot shown illustrates poor diplex filter
isolation causing common path distortions.
Radio Interference Radio Interference
181
Signal Impairments Signal Impairments
182
Network Effects on Signal Network Effects on Signal
Quality Quality
Goal is to provide a quality signal to each and Goal is to provide a quality signal to each and
every customer on the network. every customer on the network.
183
Main source of signal degradation is the Main source of signal degradation is the
amplifiers themselves. The amplification amplifiers themselves. The amplification
process causes unwanted changes to the process causes unwanted changes to the
signal in the form of noise and distortions. signal in the form of noise and distortions.
Analog Signal Impairments Analog Signal Impairments
184
Carrier to Noise (C/N) Ratio Carrier to Noise (C/N) Ratio
Carrier Carrier--to to--noise, expressed as CNR or C/N, is a noise, expressed as CNR or C/N, is a
ratio of the peak of the carrier to the peak of the ratio of the peak of the carrier to the peak of the
noise floor. noise floor. 3dB when double amps in cascade 3dB when double amps in cascade
185
Carrier to Noise (C/N) Ratio Carrier to Noise (C/N) Ratio
(cont.) (cont.)
CNR is decreased 3dB every time the cascade CNR is decreased 3dB every time the cascade
doubled. The CNR would decrease by 3dB at doubled. The CNR would decrease by 3dB at
the 2nd, 4th, 8th, 16th, (doubling) etc amplifier the 2nd, 4th, 8th, 16th, (doubling) etc amplifier
and it is not recoverable. and it is not recoverable.
186
and it is not recoverable. and it is not recoverable.
The FCC requires C/N to be a minimum of 43 The FCC requires C/N to be a minimum of 43
dBc. dBc.
Heterodyne Heterodyne
In telecommunications In telecommunications heterodyning heterodyning is the is the
generation of new frequencies by mixing two generation of new frequencies by mixing two
or more signals. Mixing two frequencies or more signals. Mixing two frequencies
creates two new frequencies, one at the sum creates two new frequencies, one at the sum
187
creates two new frequencies, one at the sum creates two new frequencies, one at the sum
of the two frequencies mixed, and the other at of the two frequencies mixed, and the other at
their difference. A heterodyne receiver is a their difference. A heterodyne receiver is a
telecommunication receiver which uses this telecommunication receiver which uses this
effect to produce frequency shifts. effect to produce frequency shifts.
Composite Second Order Composite Second Order
Unlike noise, CSO distortion is an organized Unlike noise, CSO distortion is an organized
form of signal degradation which consists of form of signal degradation which consists of
multiple carrier frequencies which diminish signal multiple carrier frequencies which diminish signal
quality. quality.
188
Composite Second Order Composite Second Order (cont.) (cont.)
When two or more carriers are passed When two or more carriers are passed
through an amplifier, there is always a certain through an amplifier, there is always a certain
amount of interaction between the carriers. amount of interaction between the carriers.
These beats of interference are a result of the These beats of interference are a result of the
189
These beats of interference are a result of the These beats of interference are a result of the
heterodyne process. The amplifier will in heterodyne process. The amplifier will in
some way act like a mixer and will generate some way act like a mixer and will generate
multiples of the signals being amplified. multiples of the signals being amplified.
Composite Second Order Composite Second Order (cont.) (cont.)
There are literally thousands of second order There are literally thousands of second order
combinations, called beats that occur. CSO, like combinations, called beats that occur. CSO, like
CNR, is also expressed as a ratio of carrier level CNR, is also expressed as a ratio of carrier level
to the level of the beat products. Each to the level of the beat products. Each
190
to the level of the beat products. Each to the level of the beat products. Each
combination produces one beat. These beats combination produces one beat. These beats
tend to mass together at the frequencies of the tend to mass together at the frequencies of the
sum and difference of the two carriers in sum and difference of the two carriers in
question. The individual beats form a cluster of question. The individual beats form a cluster of
interfering signals near the video carrier. CSO is interfering signals near the video carrier. CSO is
written as a negative value such as written as a negative value such as --53 dBc. 53 dBc.
Composite Second Order Composite Second Order (cont.) (cont.)
191
Composite Second Order Composite Second Order (cont.) (cont.)
CSO affects pictures by causing diagonal CSO affects pictures by causing diagonal
lines to be present in the picture. It does so lines to be present in the picture. It does so
because the beat products fall within the because the beat products fall within the
area of the modulated video carrier. area of the modulated video carrier.
192
CSO is decreased 3dB every time the CSO is decreased 3dB every time the
cascade is doubled. The CSO would cascade is doubled. The CSO would
decrease by 3dB at the 2nd, 4th, 8th, 16th, decrease by 3dB at the 2nd, 4th, 8th, 16th,
(doubling) etc amplifier and it is not (doubling) etc amplifier and it is not
recoverable. recoverable.
Composite Triple Beat Composite Triple Beat
Composite Triple Beat (CTB) is the same as Composite Triple Beat (CTB) is the same as
CSO with the addition of a third frequency CSO with the addition of a third frequency
adding and subtracting in the amplification adding and subtracting in the amplification
process. process.
There are literally thousands of triple beat There are literally thousands of triple beat
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There are literally thousands of triple beat There are literally thousands of triple beat
combinations that can occur. CTB, like CSO, is combinations that can occur. CTB, like CSO, is
also expressed as a ratio of carrier level to the also expressed as a ratio of carrier level to the
level of the beat products. Each combination level of the beat products. Each combination
produces one beat. These beats tend to mass produces one beat. These beats tend to mass
together under the video carrier. The individual together under the video carrier. The individual
beats add in power forming the beat product. beats add in power forming the beat product.
CTB is written as a negative value such as CTB is written as a negative value such as --53 53
dBc. dBc.
Composite Triple Beat Composite Triple Beat (cont.) (cont.)
194
CTB is a ratio of carrier level to beat products CTB is a ratio of carrier level to beat products
power level. The above example shows where the power level. The above example shows where the
beats fall for some of the possible combinations of beats fall for some of the possible combinations of
frequencies. CTB beats tend to fall directly under frequencies. CTB beats tend to fall directly under
the video carrier. the video carrier.
Composite Triple Beat Composite Triple Beat (cont.) (cont.)
Composite triple beat is often a result of Composite triple beat is often a result of
amplifier overdrive. amplifier overdrive.
CTB is decreased 6dB every time the cascade CTB is decreased 6dB every time the cascade
195
CTB is decreased 6dB every time the cascade CTB is decreased 6dB every time the cascade
is doubled. The CTB would decrease by 6dB is doubled. The CTB would decrease by 6dB
at the 2nd, 4th, 8th, 16th, (doubling) etc at the 2nd, 4th, 8th, 16th, (doubling) etc
amplifier and it is not recoverable. amplifier and it is not recoverable.
Cross Modulation (XMOD) Cross Modulation (XMOD)
Cross Modulation (XMOD) is a distortion which Cross Modulation (XMOD) is a distortion which
results from the amplitude modulation of one results from the amplitude modulation of one
channel superimposing onto another channel. channel superimposing onto another channel.
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XMOD simply means a desired channel is XMOD simply means a desired channel is
being modulated by another; that is, some of being modulated by another; that is, some of
the modulation sidebands on the desired the modulation sidebands on the desired
channel are due to another. channel are due to another.
Cross Modulation (XMOD) Cross Modulation (XMOD)
Excessive XMOD will manifest itself as Excessive XMOD will manifest itself as
spurious signals, as well as the transfer, or spurious signals, as well as the transfer, or
superimposing, of modulation (information) superimposing, of modulation (information)
from one carrier to another. The effect is from one carrier to another. The effect is
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from one carrier to another. The effect is from one carrier to another. The effect is
jittery bars on the picture, generated by the jittery bars on the picture, generated by the
sync pulses of other channels being sync pulses of other channels being
impressed upon the received channel. impressed upon the received channel.
Hum Modulation Hum Modulation
Hum modulation distortions are in effect the Hum modulation distortions are in effect the
transfer of unwanted modulation to the signal transfer of unwanted modulation to the signal
being amplified. Hum is amplitude modulation being amplified. Hum is amplitude modulation
of the carrier by a signal whose frequency is of the carrier by a signal whose frequency is
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of the carrier by a signal whose frequency is of the carrier by a signal whose frequency is
usually a harmonic of the power line frequency. usually a harmonic of the power line frequency.
It can be generated by any number of active It can be generated by any number of active
devices along the coaxial plant. devices along the coaxial plant.
Digital Signal Impairments Digital Signal Impairments
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Digital Signal Impairments Digital Signal Impairments
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QAM Decision QAM Decision Areas Areas
Decision boundaries for Decision boundaries for
common QAM common QAM
modulation types are modulation types are
shown in the figure. shown in the figure.
Notice that the larger Notice that the larger
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Notice that the larger Notice that the larger
decision boundary of 16 decision boundary of 16--
QAM makes it much QAM makes it much
more tolerant of signal more tolerant of signal
distortions than the distortions than the
much smaller much smaller
boundaries of 64 boundaries of 64-- and and
256 256--QAM. QAM.
Analyzing QAM Signals Analyzing QAM Signals
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Constellation Build Up Constellation Build Up
On a test instrument, the locations on the constellation
build up over time, and the shape and distribution can tell
you a great deal about the health of the signal.
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The constellation display on a QAM analyzer gives a visual
indication of how far the noise is moving the signal from ideal
location. The further the signals move from ideal locations,
the poorer the Modulation Error Rate (MER).
Modulation Error Ratio (MER) Modulation Error Ratio (MER)
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Modulation Error Ratio Modulation Error Ratio
Digital signals are also susceptible to Digital signals are also susceptible to
signal degradation cause by a variety of signal degradation cause by a variety of
problems. For QAM signal problems. For QAM signal
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problems. For QAM signal problems. For QAM signal
measurements, the Modulation Error Ratio measurements, the Modulation Error Ratio
(MER) summarizes all errors indicated by (MER) summarizes all errors indicated by
a constellation diagram. a constellation diagram.
Modulation Error Ratio Modulation Error Ratio (cont.) (cont.)
The Modulation Error The Modulation Error
Ratio (MER) summarizes Ratio (MER) summarizes
all errors indicated by a all errors indicated by a
constellation diagram. constellation diagram.
For each I/Q pair of a For each I/Q pair of a
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For each I/Q pair of a For each I/Q pair of a
constellation diagram constellation diagram
there is just one there is just one
theoretical target point theoretical target point
precisely in the center of precisely in the center of
each decision field. But each decision field. But
this target is often missed. this target is often missed.
Bit Error Rate (BER) Bit Error Rate (BER)
BER is similar to signal BER is similar to signal--to to--noise ratio in an noise ratio in an
analog system. analog system.
BER is the percentage of bits with errors BER is the percentage of bits with errors
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BER is the percentage of bits with errors BER is the percentage of bits with errors
divided by the total number of bits that have divided by the total number of bits that have
been transmitted, received or processed over a been transmitted, received or processed over a
given time period. given time period.
Bit Error Rate (BER) Bit Error Rate (BER) (cont.) (cont.)
The rate is typically expressed as 10 to the The rate is typically expressed as 10 to the
negative power. For example, four erroneous negative power. For example, four erroneous
bits out of 100,000 bits transmitted would be bits out of 100,000 bits transmitted would be
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bits out of 100,000 bits transmitted would be bits out of 100,000 bits transmitted would be
expressed as 4 x 10 expressed as 4 x 10--5, or the expression 3 x 5, or the expression 3 x
10 10--6 would indicate that three bits were in error 6 would indicate that three bits were in error
out of 1,000,000 transmitted. out of 1,000,000 transmitted.
Power Supply Power Supply
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Powering Powering Components Components
DC power pack DC power pack
Shunts, fuses, power directors, surge Shunts, fuses, power directors, surge
protectors protectors
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protectors protectors
60/90 vac switch (in some cases ) 60/90 vac switch (in some cases )
Power indicator LEDS Power indicator LEDS
Optical nodes used in your system. Optical nodes used in your system.
System Powering Principles System Powering Principles
The device that actually couples the 60 The device that actually couples the 60--Hz Hz
power onto the cable is called a power onto the cable is called a power power
inserter inserter
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inserter inserter
The AC power supply The AC power supply
Application to CATV Application to CATV
The 60 The 60--V power supply is considered to V power supply is considered to
be the source E in Ohms Law. be the source E in Ohms Law.
Since individual current draws are Since individual current draws are
already determined by the amplifiers already determined by the amplifiers
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already determined by the amplifiers already determined by the amplifiers
manufacturer, simply adding the current manufacturer, simply adding the current
draws together gives the total draw from draws together gives the total draw from
the power source (supply). This is the power source (supply). This is
considered the current I. considered the current I.
Application to CATV Application to CATV (cont.) (cont.)
The cable used in a CATV system is the The cable used in a CATV system is the
series resistor. Rating of the cables loop series resistor. Rating of the cables loop
resistance can be found in the resistance can be found in the
manufacturers specifications, usually in manufacturers specifications, usually in
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manufacturers specifications, usually in manufacturers specifications, usually in
1,000 1,000--foot increments. These foot increments. These
specifications are rated in ohms per 1,000 specifications are rated in ohms per 1,000
feet. This loop resistance is considered to feet. This loop resistance is considered to
be the R in Ohms Law. be the R in Ohms Law.
Application to CATV Application to CATV (cont.) (cont.)
The formula for determining the exact The formula for determining the exact
resistance of a length of cable is the resistance of a length of cable is the
combined resistance of the coaxial cables combined resistance of the coaxial cables
center conductor and the shield: center conductor and the shield:
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center conductor and the shield: center conductor and the shield:
feet per ce resis loop rated x
length span
1000 tan
1000
Powering System Design Powering System Design
A/C power loses voltage as it travels A/C power loses voltage as it travels
through cable just as RF signal does. through cable just as RF signal does.
The effect on 60 Hz power is much less The effect on 60 Hz power is much less
than the higher frequencies used in the RF than the higher frequencies used in the RF
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than the higher frequencies used in the RF than the higher frequencies used in the RF
spectrum. spectrum.
Providing active gear in the system with the Providing active gear in the system with the
proper voltage levels is just as important as proper voltage levels is just as important as
correct RF levels. correct RF levels.
Powering System Design Powering System Design (cont.) (cont.)
Low voltage levels can cause picture Low voltage levels can cause picture
problems and intermittent outages (flashing). problems and intermittent outages (flashing).
Active devices use a set amount of current as Active devices use a set amount of current as
long as the input AC voltage remains above long as the input AC voltage remains above
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long as the input AC voltage remains above long as the input AC voltage remains above
the minimum requirement for the device. the minimum requirement for the device.
Powering System Design Powering System Design (cont.) (cont.)
The current draw of amplifiers downstream The current draw of amplifiers downstream
from a section of coax determines the voltage from a section of coax determines the voltage
drop across that section of coax. The more drop across that section of coax. The more
amplifiers on a coax section, the more voltage amplifiers on a coax section, the more voltage
will be lost. will be lost.
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will be lost. will be lost.
Coaxial cable has a higher resistance and Coaxial cable has a higher resistance and
loses more voltage at higher temperatures. loses more voltage at higher temperatures.
Voltage problems that are borderline at low Voltage problems that are borderline at low
temperatures may become outages at higher temperatures may become outages at higher
temperatures. temperatures.
Calculating Input Voltage to Amplifiers Calculating Input Voltage to Amplifiers
It is necessary to complete five steps to It is necessary to complete five steps to
calculate powering: calculate powering:
Gather all the necessary specifications. Gather all the necessary specifications.
Add the current draws. Add the current draws.
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Add the current draws. Add the current draws.
Calculate the loop resistance of the first span. Calculate the loop resistance of the first span.
Calculate the voltage drop across the first span. Calculate the voltage drop across the first span.
Subtract the voltage drop from the source Subtract the voltage drop from the source
voltage. voltage.
Calculating Input Voltage Calculating Input Voltage
to Amplifiers to Amplifiers (cont.) (cont.)
To complete Step One, you will need to gather To complete Step One, you will need to gather
the following specifications: the following specifications:
Determine the loop resistance for all cable Determine the loop resistance for all cable
used. used.
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used. used.
Determine the current draws from all types of Determine the current draws from all types of
amplifiers in the system. amplifiers in the system.
Determine the output voltage and amperage Determine the output voltage and amperage
rating of the power supply used. (It is probably rating of the power supply used. (It is probably
60 VAC.) 60 VAC.)
Determine the cable loop resistance. Determine the cable loop resistance.
Calculating Input Voltage Calculating Input Voltage
to Amplifiers to Amplifiers (cont.) (cont.)




1.4a 1.4a 1.4a
2000 ft
1500 ft
Trunk
Amplifier #1
Trunk
Amplifier #2
Trunk
Amplifier #3
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1.4a 1.4a 1.4a
.7a
60v
2000 ft
1500 ft
500ft
power
supply
Distribution
Amplifier #1
Cable Section #1 Cable Section #2
Cable
Section #3
Calculation Practice Calculation Practice
Use the specifications listed below: Use the specifications listed below:
Trunk cable ft. .76 ohms per thousand
Distribution cable 1.72 ohms per thousand ft
Trunk amplifiers 1.4 amperes draw
Distribution amplifiers .7 amperes draw
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6 0 V A C
2 0 0 0 f t
1 7 5 0 f t 1 9 0 0 f t 1 8 0 0 f t
6 5 0 f t 7 0 0 f t
6 0 0 f t
7 5 0 f t
1 2 3 4 5
1
Power Module Power Module
Ferroresonant transformer Ferroresonant transformer
Resonant transformer Resonant transformer
Dual Dual--mode temperature mode temperature--compensating battery compensating battery
charger charger
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charger charger
DC to AC converter (inverter) DC to AC converter (inverter)
Transfer isolation relay Transfer isolation relay
Main circuit assembly containing the logic Main circuit assembly containing the logic
circuit circuit
Theory of Operation Theory of Operation
AC (line) operation AC (line) operation
Inverter (standby) operation Inverter (standby) operation
223
Charger operation Charger operation
Compliance Compliance
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FCC Proof of Performance FCC Proof of Performance -- Field Field
FCC Proofs Performance
Spec
Impact on Signal Quality
Minimum
Visual Signal
Level
0 dBmV at the
terminal device
(+3 dB at the
If a given channel signal level is
too low, picture quality may be
affected by an adjacent channel.
225
Level (+3 dB at the
end of 150 feet
of cable)
affected by an adjacent channel.
Shows relative signal intensity.
Terminal
Isolation
18 dB port to
port
Adjacent customer interference
(measured at tap port) isolation
minimizes migration of
interference signals originating
at one subscriber tap port from
an adjacent subscriber tap port.
FCC Proof of Performance FCC Proof of Performance -- Field Field
FCC Proofs Performance
Spec
Impact on Signal Quality
Low
Frequency
Disturbance
Maximum 3%
of reference
signal
Low frequency disturbances can
produce hum bars (slow
scrolling horizontal lines).
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Disturbance
(hum)
signal scrolling horizontal lines).
Carrier-to-
Noise (C/N)
Minimum 43
dBc
Below 40 dBc noise is visible as
snow on the television.
FCC Proof of Performance FCC Proof of Performance -- Field Field
FCC Proofs Performance
Spec
Impact on Signal Quality
Cumulative
Leakage
Index (CLI)
Figure of merit
(varies by
measuring
Amount of energy (at
frequencies used by
aeronautical communications)
227
Index (CLI) measuring
technique)
aeronautical communications)
that is leaking out of the system
(may also indicate ingress).
Intermodulatio
n Distortions
(CTB, XMOD,
CSO)
Minimum 51
dBc
Multiple beat patterns result
when levels are too high. (CTB
shows multiple horizontal bars;
XMOD shows multiple pictures
simultaneously; and CSO shows
a diagonal pattern.)
Performance Measures Performance Measures
Adjacent carrier levels Adjacent carrier levels
Hum Hum
CNR CNR
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CNR CNR
Peak Peak--to to--valley valley
Leakage Leakage
Direct pickup Direct pickup