Experimental Gene Therapy Treatment For

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Offers Hope

For Youngster
Main Category: Muscular Dystrophy / ALS
Also Included In: Genetics
Article Date: 12 Feb 2013 - 2:00 PST
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Experimental Gene Therapy Treatment For Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Offers Hope For
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Jacob Rutt is a bright 11-year-old who likes to draw detailed maps in his spare time. But the
budding geographer has a hard time with physical skills most children take for granted -- running
and climbing trees are beyond him, and even walking can be difficult. He was diagnosed with a
form of muscular dystrophy known as Duchenne when he was two years old.

The disease affects about 1 in 3,500 newborns -- mostly boys -- worldwide. It usually becomes
apparent in early childhood, as weakened skeletal muscles cause delays in milestones such as
sitting and walking. Children usually become wheelchair-dependent during their teens. As heart
muscle is increasingly affected, the disease becomes life threatening and many patients die from
heart failure in their 20s.

Today, Jacob is one of 51 children participating in a nationwide clinical trial for a new type
treatment that could offer help to those suffering from devastating neuromuscular disease.
Clinical researchers at UC Davis Medical Center and a handful other research centers around the
nation are testing a high-tech drug designed to fix the underlying genetic defect causing the
progressive muscular decline that is seen in children with Duchenne.

"This type of genetic therapy is the most exciting treatment approach I have witnessed in my
career for Duchenne muscular dystrophy," said Craig McDonald, professor and chair of the
Department of Physical Medicine Rehabilitation at UC Davis, as well as principal investigator of
the national clinical trial that Jacob is participating in. "We are hopeful that it will delay many of
the disease's manifestations and ultimately improve life expectancy for patients."

Duchenne muscular dystrophy is caused by genetic mutations in the gene for the muscle protein
dystrophin. The protein is a stabilizer that protects muscle fibers; without enough functional
dystrophin, muscles become damaged, causing them to weaken and deteriorate over time.

Functioning a bit like a bridge over a dangerous chasm, the experimental drug - known as
drisapersen - is designed to effectively cover over the specific genetic mutation, allowing the
problem area to be skipped and causing cells to produce a slightly shorter - but functional -
dystrophin protein.

Because Duchenne muscular dystrophy is rare and the drug addresses only a small subset of the
genetic variants responsible for the disease, recruiting qualified patients was not easy. Of the
medical centers involved in the study, UC Davis, with its highly regarded neuromuscular disease
and physical medicine and rehabilitation expertise, enrolled the largest group of patients in the
nation. For more than a year, its eight young participants, including Jacob, have been to
Sacramento from as far away as Colorado, Utah and Arizona. For each participant, the clinical
trial involved weekly injections, which meant Jacob had to fly from Southern California to the
UC Davis clinic every Friday for 24 weeks.















What Is Muscular Dystrophy? What Causes
Muscular Dystrophy?
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Main Category: Muscular Dystrophy / ALS
Article Date: 05 May 2010 - 0:00 PDT
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What Is Muscular Dystrophy? What Causes Muscular Dystrophy?

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The muscular dystrophies (MD) are a group a group of genetic diseases characterized by progressive
weakness and degeneration of the skeletal or voluntary muscles which control movement. The muscles
of the heart and some other involuntary muscles are also affected in some forms of muscular dystrophy,
and a few forms involve other organs as well.

According to Medilexicon's medical dictionary:
Muscular Dystrophy a general term for a number of hereditary, progressive degenerative disorders
affecting skeletal muscles, and often other organ systems.


Some forms of MD are seen in infancy or childhood, while others may not appear until middle age or
later. The disorders differ in terms of the distribution and extent of muscle weakness, age of onset, rate
of progression, and pattern of inheritance.

Duchenne MD is the most common form of MD and primarily affects boys. It is caused by the absence of
dystrophin, a protein involved in maintaining the integrity of muscle. Onset is between 3 and 5 years
and the disorder progresses rapidly. Most boys are unable to walk by age 12, and later need a respirator
to breathe.

About 1 out of every 3,500 to 5000 boys is born with MD, and there are about 400 to 600 new cases
each year in the United States. Girls in these families have a 50 percent chance of inheriting and passing
the defective gene to their children.

Boys with Becker MD (very similar to but less severe than Duchenne MD) have faulty or not enough
dystrophin.

Facioscapulohumeral MD usually begins in the teenage years. It causes progressive weakness in muscles
of the face, arms, legs, and around the shoulders and chest. It progresses slowly and can vary in
symptoms from mild to disabling.

Myotonic MD is the disorder's most common adult form and is typified by prolonged muscle spasms,
cataracts, cardiac abnormalities, and endocrine disturbances. Individuals with myotonic MD have long,
thin faces, drooping eyelids, and a swan-like neck.
What are the symptoms of Muscular Dystrophy?
A symptom is something the patient senses and describes, while a sign is something other people, such
as the doctor notice. For example, drowsiness may be a symptom while dilated pupils may be a sign.

The symptoms of muscular dystrophy are the result of a deterioration of the body's muscles. This
deterioration is due to the death of the muscle cells and muscle tissues and leads to ongoing muscle
wasting and muscle weakness. Muscular dystrophy progresses and gets worse over time eventually. This
results in difficulty walking, disability, the need for leg and hand braces, and ultimately the use of a
wheelchair.

The muscle weakness of muscular dystrophy often begins in the legs. This makes it difficult for a child to
walk normally, and he or she may walk with their feet wide apart to help keep balance. The child may
use his or her hands and arms to get up from the floor and assist with standing. There may be frequent
falls, a waddling gait, limited range of motion and pain in the calves. By 12 years of age, a child is often
completely unable to walk and must use a wheelchair.









Breakthrough Discovery Offers Hope For
Muscular Dystrophy Patients
Main Category: Muscular Dystrophy / ALS
Article Date: 24 Jan 2013 - 1:00 PST
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Breakthrough Discovery Offers Hope For Muscular Dystrophy Patients

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Muscular dystrophy is caused by the largest human gene, a complex chemical leviathan that has
confounded scientists for decades. Research conducted at the University of Missouri and
described this month in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences has identified
significant sections of the gene that could provide hope to young patients and families.

MU scientists Dongsheng Duan, PhD, and Yi Lai, PhD, identified a sequence in the dystrophin
gene that is essential for helping muscle tissues function, a breakthrough discovery that could
lead to treatments for the deadly hereditary disease. The MU researchers "found the proverbial
needle in a haystack," according to Scott Harper, PhD, a muscular dystrophy expert at The Ohio
State University who is not involved in the study.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), predominantly affecting males, is the most common type
of muscular dystrophy. Children with DMD face a future of rapidly weakening muscles, which
usually leads to death by respiratory or cardiac failure before their 30th birthday.

Patients with DMD have a gene mutation that disrupts the production of dystrophin, a protein
essential for muscle cell survival and function. Absence of dystrophin starts a chain reaction that
eventually leads to muscle cell degeneration and death. While dystrophin is vital for muscle
development, the protein also needs several "helpers" to maintain the muscle tissue. One of these
"helper" molecular compounds is nNOS, which produces nitric oxide that can keep muscle cells
healthy during exercise.

"Dystrophin not only helps build muscle cells, it's also a key factor to attracting nNOS to the
muscle cell membrane, which is important during exercise," Lai said. "Prior to this discovery, we
didn't know how dystrophin made nNOS bind to the cell membrane. What we found was that
dystrophin has a special 'claw' that is used to grab nNOS and bring it to the muscle cell
membrane. Now that we have that key, we hope to begin the process of developing a therapy for
patients."

Duan and Lai, scientists with MU's Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology,
found that two particular sections of the dystrophin gene must be present for nNOS to bind to the
muscle cell membrane. The sections of the gene, known as "repeaters 16 & 17," contain a "claw"
that can grab nNOS and bring it to the muscle cell membrane so that it will prevent ischemic
damage from muscle activity. Without this "claw," nNOS doesn't bind to the cell membrane and
the muscle cells are damaged, leading to further problems associated with muscular dystrophy.

The other key to this puzzle is dystrophin. If the protein is not present in the body, no "claw"
exists and nNOS would never make it to the muscle cell membrane. For years, scientists have
been attempting to find ways to make the body manufacture dystrophin, and thus get nNOS to
the muscle cell membrane. Duan and Lai said the answer might lie elsewhere.

"Everybody, including those individuals with muscular dystrophy, has another protein known as
'utrophin,' " said Duan, a Margaret Proctor Mulligan Distinguished Professor in Medical
Research at MU. "Utrophin is nearly identical to dystrophin except that it is missing repeaters 16
& 17, so it cannot attract nNOS to the muscle cell membrane. In our study, we were able to
modify utrophin so that it had the repeaters, and thus, the ability to grab nNOS and bring it to the
muscle cell membrane to protect muscle. Our study was completed in mice, but if we can do the
same thing in larger animals, we could eventually have a therapy for humans with this
devastating disease."

Harper described the MU research as "as an exquisite example of a basic study with potentially
important translational implications for therapy of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. ... The data
from the Duan laboratory, reported in this paper and previous studies, demonstrates that the
structural elements required for proper nNOS localization should be included in any DMD
therapy for which dystrophin restoration is the goal."

For more than 10 years, Duan has been a leader in muscular dystrophy, gene therapy and biology
research at MU. In addition to his recently published study in PNAS, Duan's lab continues to
examine the basic scientific mechanisms behind muscular dystrophy as well as strategies for
treating the disease. For example, his lab is studying the effectiveness of a gene therapy for
treating heart failure associated with Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Using viruses as a means for delivering gene therapy, Duan is also testing how synthetic
microgenes could improve muscle function in dystrophic dog and mouse models. In 2011, he and
Lai were granted a patent for a synthetic microgene developed in his lab that has now proved to
enhance muscle function in dogs. Those results were also published this month in the journal
Molecular Therapy.

The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It
permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body. The
muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous system, although some muscles
(such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous.
Contents
1 Muscles
o 1.1 Anatomy
o 1.2 Aerobic and anaerobic muscle activity
o 1.3 Cardiac muscle
o 1.4 Smooth muscle
2 Control of muscle contraction
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
Muscles
Main article: Muscle
There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth
(non-striated) muscles. Muscles provide strength, balance, posture, movement and heat for the
body to keep warm.
Upon stimulation by an action potential, skeletal muscles perform a coordinated contraction by
shortening each sarcomere. The best proposed model for understanding contraction is the sliding
filament model of muscle contraction. Actin and myosin fibers overlap in a contractile motion
towards each other. Myosin filaments have club-shaped heads that project toward the actin
filaments.
Larger structures along the myosin filament called myosin heads are used to provide attachment
points on binding sites for the actin filaments. The myosin heads move in a coordinated style,
they swivel toward the center of the sarcomere, detach and then reattach to the nearest active site
of the actin filament. This is called a rachet type drive system. This process consumes large
amounts of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Energy for this comes from ATP, the energy source of the cell. ATP binds to the cross bridges
between myosin heads and actin filaments. The release of energy powers the swiveling of the
myosin head. Muscles store little ATP and so must continuously recycle the discharged
adenosine diphosphate molecule (ADP) into ATP rapidly. Muscle tissue also contains a stored
supply of a fast acting recharge chemical, creatine phosphate which can assist initially producing
the rapid regeneration of ADP into ATP.
Calcium ions are required for each cycle of the sarcomere. Calcium is released from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcomere when a muscle is stimulated to contract. This calcium
uncovers the actin binding sites. When the muscle no longer needs to contract, the calcium ions
are pumped from the sarcomere and back into storage in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Anatomy
Main article: Table of muscles of the human body
There are approximately 639 skeletal muscles in the human body.
The following are some major muscles
[1]
and their basic features:
Muscle Origin Insertion Artery Nerve Action Antagonist
gastrocnemius femur calcaneus sural arteries tibial nerve
plantarflexi
on, flexion
of knee
(minor)key
Tibialis
anterior
muscle
tibialis
posterior
tibia, fibula Foot posterior tibial artery tibial nerve
inversion of
the foot,
plantar
flexion of
the foot at
the ankle
Tibialis
anterior
muscle
soleus
tibia,
medial
border of
fibula
calcaneus sural arteries tibial nerve
plantarflexi
on
Tibialis
anterior
muscle
tibialis anterior tibia foot anterior tibial artery Fibular nerve
dorsiflex
and invert
the foot
Fibularis
longus,
Gastrocnemi
us, Soleus,
Plantaris,
Tibialis
posterior
longus fibula Foot fibular artery
Superficial
fibular nerve
plantarflexi
on,
eversion
Tibialis
anterior
muscle
brevis fibula
Foot,
eversion
peroneal artery
superficial
peroneal nerve


gluteus
maximus
muscle
ilium,
sacrum,
sacrotuber
ous
ligament
Gluteal
tuberosit
y of the
femur
gluteal arteries
inferior gluteal
nerve
external
rotation
and
extension
of the hip
joint
Iliacus, Psoas
major, Psoas
minor
biceps femoris
ischium,
femur
fibula
inferior gluteal
artery, popliteal
artery
tibial nerve,
common
peroneal nerve
flexes and
laterally
rotates
knee joint,
extends hip
joint
Quadriceps
muscle
semitendinosus ischium tibia inferior gluteal artery sciatic
flex knee,
extend hip
joint
Quadriceps
muscle
semimembrano
sus
ischium tibia
profunda femoris,
[Gluteal artery
(disambiguation)|[gl
uteal artery]]
sciatic nerve
Hip
extension,
Knee
flexion
Quadriceps
muscle
iliopsoas ilium femur
medial femoral
circumflex artery,
iliolumbar artery
femoral nerve,
lumbar nerves
flexion of
hip
Gluteus
maximus,
posterior
compartmen
t of thigh
quadriceps
femoris
combined
rectus
femoris and
vastus
muscles

femoral artery Femoral nerve
Knee
extension;
Hip flexion
Hamstring
adductor
muscles of the
hip
pubis
femur,
tibia

obturator
nerve
adduction
of hip

levator
scapulae
vertebral
column
scapula
dorsal scapular
artery
cervical nerve,
dorsal scapular
nerve
Elevates
scapula,
tilts its
glenoid
cavity
inferiorly

trapezius
the rear of
the skull,
vertebral
column
clavicle,
scapula

cranial nerve
XI, cervical
nerves
retraction
of scapula
Serratus
anterior
muscle
rectus
abdominis
pubis
Costal
cartilage
of ribs 5-
7,
sternum
inferior epigastric
artery
segmentally by
thoraco-
abdominal
nerves
flexion of
trunk/lumb
ar
vertebrae
Erector
spinae
transversus
abdominis
ribs, ilium
pubic
tubercle

lower
intercostal
nerves,
iliohypogastric
nerve and the
ilioinguinal
nerve
compress
the ribs and
viscera,
thoracic
and pelvic
stability

Abdominal
external
oblique muscle
Lower 8
costae
Crista
iliaca,
ligamentu
m
inguinale

lower 6
intercostal
nerve,
subcostal nerve
Rotates
torso

Abdominal
internal oblique
muscle
Inguinal
ligament,
Iliac crest
and the
Lumbodors
al fascia
Linea
alba,
sternum
and the
inferior
ribs.

Compresses
abdomen
and rotates
vertebral
column.

erector spinae
on the
spines of
the last
both the
spines of
the most
lateral sacral artery
posterior
branch of
spinal nerve
extends the
vertebral
column
Rectus
abdominis
muscle
four
thoracic
vertebr
cranial
thoracic
vertebrae
and the
cervical
vertebrae
pectoralis
major
clavicle,
sternum,
costal
cartilages
humerus
thoracoacromial
trunk
lateral pectoral
nerve and
medial pectoral
nerve
Clavicular
head: flexes
the
humerus
Sternocosta
l head:
extends the
humerus
As a whole,
adducts
and
medially
rotates the
humerus. It
also draws
the scapula
anteriorly
and
inferiorly.

biceps brachii scapula radius brachial artery
Musculocutane
ous nerve
flexes
elbow and
supinates
forearm
Triceps
brachii
muscle
triceps brachii
scapula and
humerus
ulna deep brachial artery radial nerve
extends
forearm,
caput
longum
adducts
shoulder
Biceps
brachii
muscle
brachialis humerus ulna
radial recurrent
artery
musculocutane
ous nerve
flexion at
elbow joint

pronator teres
humerus,
ulna
radius
ulnar artery and
radial artery
median nerve
pronation
of forearm,
flexes
elbow
Supinator
muscle
brachioradialis humerus radius
radial recurrent
artery
radial nerve
Flexion of
forearm

rhomboids
nuchal
ligaments,
spinous
processes
of the C7 to
T5
vertebrae
scapula
dorsal scapular
artery
dorsal scapular
nerve
Retracts the
scapula and
rotates it to
depress the
glenoid
cavity. fixes
the scapula
to the
thoracic
wall.
Serratus
anterior
muscle
deltoid
clavicle,
acromion,
scapula
deltoid
tuberosit
y of
humerus
primarily posterior
circumflex humeral
artery
Axillary nerve
shoulder
abduction,
flexion and
extension
Latissimus
dorsi
latissimus dorsi
vertebral
column,
ilium and
inferior 3 or
4 ribs
humerus
subscapular artery,
dorsal scapular
artery
thoracodorsal
nerve
pulls the
forelimb
dorsally and
caudally
deltoid,
trapezius
Aerobic and anaerobic muscle activity

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July
2007)
At rest, the body produces the majority of its ATP aerobically in the mitochondria
[2]
without
producing lactic acid or other fatiguing byproducts.
[3]
During exercise, the method of ATP
production varies depending on the fitness of the individual as well as the duration, and intensity
of exercise. At lower activity levels, when exercise continues for a long duration (several
minutes or longer), energy is produced aerobically by combining oxygen with carbohydrates and
fats stored in the body. Activity that is higher in intensity, with possible duration decreasing as
intensity increases, ATP production can switch to anaerobic pathways, such as the use of the
creatine phosphate and the phosphagen system or anaerobic glycolysis. Aerobic ATP production
is biochemically much slower and can only be used for long-duration, low intensity exercise, but
produces no fatiguing waste products that can not be removed immediately from sarcomere and
body and results in a much greater number of ATP molecules per fat or carbohydrate molecule.
Aerobic training allows the oxygen delivery system to be more efficient, allowing aerobic
metabolism to begin quicker.
[3]
Anaerobic ATP production produces ATP much faster and
allows near-maximal intensity exercise, but also produces significant amounts of lactic acid
which render high intensity exercise unsustainable for greater than several minutes.
[3]
The
phosphagen system is also anaerobic, allows for the highest levels of exercise intensity, but
intramuscular stores of phosphocreatine are very limited and can only provide energy for
exercises lasting up to ten seconds. Recovery is very quick, with full creatine stores regenerated
within five minutes.
[3]

Cardiac muscle
Main article: Heart muscle
Heart muscles are distinct from skeletal muscles because the muscle fibers are laterally
connected to each other. Furthermore, just as with smooth muscles, they are not controlling
themselves. Heart muscles are controlled by the sinus node influenced by the autonomic nervous
system.
Smooth muscle
Main article: Smooth muscle
Smooth muscles are controlled directly by the autonomic nervous system and are involuntary,
meaning that they are incapable of being moved by conscious thought. Functions such as heart
beat and lungs (which are capable of being willingly controlled, be it to a limited extent) are
involuntary muscles but are not smooth muscles.
Control of muscle contraction
Neuromuscular junctions are the focal point where a motor neuron attaches to a muscle.
Acetylcholine, (a neurotransmitter used in skeletal muscle contraction) is released from the axon
terminal of the nerve cell when an action potential reaches the microscopic junction, called a
synapse. A group of chemical messengers cross the synapse and stimulate the formation of
electrical changes, which are produced in the muscle cell when the acetylcholine binds to
receptors on its surface. Calcium is released from its storage area in the cell's sarcoplasmic
reticulum. An impulse from a nerve cell causes calcium release and brings about a single, short
muscle contraction called a muscle twitch. If there is a problem at the neuromuscular junction, a
very prolonged contraction may occur, tetanus. Also, a loss of function at the junction can
produce paralysis.
Skeletal muscles are organized into hundreds of motor units, each of which involves a motor
neuron, attached by a series of thin finger-like structures called axon terminals. These attach to
and control discrete bundles of muscle fibers. A coordinated and fine tuned response to a specific
circumstance will involve controlling the precise number of motor units used. While individual
muscle units contract as a unit, the entire muscle can contract on a predetermined basis due to the
structure of the motor unit. Motor unit coordination, balance, and control frequently come under
the direction of the cerebellum of the brain. This allows for complex muscular coordination with
little conscious effort, such as when one drives a car without thinking about the process.























While most people associate muscles with strength, they do more than assist in lifting heavy
objects. The 650 muscles in the body not only support movement controlling walking,
talking, sitting, standing, eating and other daily functions that we consciously perform but
also help to maintain posture and circulate blood and other substances throughout the body,
among other functions.
Description of the muscular system
The nervous system controls the actions of the muscles, although some muscles, including the
cardiac muscle, can function autonomously. Muscles make up more than half of the weight of
the human body, and people who do heavy weight training often gain weight because muscle is
about three times as dense as fat.
The muscular system can be broken down into three types of muscles: skeletal, smooth and
cardiac.
Skeletal muscles are the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body and control every
action that a person consciously performs. Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones
across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other.
Visceral, or smooth, muscle is found inside of organs such as the stomach, intestines, and blood
vessels. It is called a smooth muscle because unlike skeletal muscle, it does not have the banded
appearance of skeletal or cardiac muscle. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscles
send signals to contract to move substances through the organ. Because visceral muscle is
controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it is known as involuntary muscle as it cannot be
controlled by the conscious mind.
Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body.
The hearts natural pacemaker is made of cardiac muscle that signals other cardiac muscles to
contract. Like visceral muscles, cardiac muscle tissue is controlled involuntarily. While
hormones and signals from the brain adjust the rate of contraction, cardiac muscle stimulates
itself to contract.
Muscles are further classified by their shape, size and direction. The deltoids have a triangular
shape. The serratus muscle, which originates on the surface of the second to ninth ribs at the side
of the chest and runs along the entire anterior length of the scapula, has a distinguishing saw-like
shape. The rhomboid major is a diamond shape.
Size can be used to differentiate similar muscles in the same region. The gluteal region contains
three muscles differentiated by size the gluteus maximus (large), gluteus medius (medium),
and gluteus minimus (smallest).
The direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to identify a muscle. In the abdominal
region, there are several sets of wide, flat muscles. The muscles whose fibers run straight up and
down are the rectus abdominis, the ones running transversely (left to right) are the transverse
abdominis, and the ones running at an angle are the obliques. As any exercise enthusiast knows,
obliques are among the hardest muscles to develop and achieve six-pack abs.
Muscles can also be identified by their function. The flexor group of the forearm flexes the wrist
and the fingers. The supinator is a muscle that supinates the wrist by rolling it over to face palm
up. Abductor muscles in the legs adduct, or pull together, the limbs.
Diseases of the muscular system
There is no one type of doctor that treats muscular diseases and disorders. Rheumatologists,
orthopedists, and neurologists may all treat conditions which affect the muscles.
Because the muscular system impacts so many of the functions necessary to sustain life, any
disease or disorder can cause health problems, ranging from minor to severe. Not only do
muscular disorders affect mobility, but can result in many other functional abnormalities, such as
the inability to breath, swallow or speak.

Muscular dystrophy is a genetic disease that damages muscle fibers. The symptoms of
muscular dystrophy disease include weakness, loss of mobility and lack of coordination. More
than 50,000 Americans suffer with one of the nine forms of the disease, which can occur at any
time in a persons life and has no cure.
Cerebral palsy impacts posture, balance and motor functions. Brain damage during or before
childbirth causes a loss of muscle tone, making it difficult to perform everyday tasks. It is one of
the most common congenital disorders.

Myasthenia gravis is a chronic autoimmune disease that results in muscle weakness and fatigue.
A breakdown of the neuromuscular junction causes the brain to lose control over these muscles,
which can result in difficulty breathing and swallowing,
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), often referred to as "Lou Gehrig's disease," is a
progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects nerve cells in the brain. It is a fatal disease
that affects 30,000 Americans at any one time and leads to a loss of control over voluntary
muscle movement, making it increasingly difficult to swallow, breath and speak. The disease
ultimately causes paralysis and death.
Fibromyalgia is a chronic disorder characterized by widespread muscle pain, stiffness, fatigue,
and tenderness in localized areas. While this is a difficult disease to pinpoint and diagnose and
can mimic many other medical problems, it has gained acceptance as a recognized health issue
over the past decade.
Kim Ann Zimmermann, LiveScience Contributor


The muscular system is responsible for the movement of the human body. Attached to the bones
of the skeletal system are about 700 named muscles that make up roughly half of a persons body
weight. Each of these muscles is a discrete organ constructed of skeletal muscle tissue, blood
vessels, tendons, and nerves. Muscle tissue is also found inside of the heart, digestive organs, and
blood vessels. In these organs, muscles serve to move substances throughout the body....

Click to read more below

Anatomy Terms
Adductor Brevis Muscle
Muscles of the Abdomen, Lower Back and Pelvis
Muscles of the Arm and Hand
Muscles of the Chest and Upper Back
Muscles of the Head and Neck
Muscles of the Leg and Foot
Abdominal Head of Pectoralis Major Muscle
Abductor Digiti Minimi Muscle of Foot
Abductor Hallucis Muscle
Adductor Longus Muscle
Adductor Magnus Muscle
Anconeus Muscle
Biceps Brachii Muscle (Long Head)
Biceps Brachii Muscle (Short Head)
Biceps Femoris Muscle (Long Head)
Brachialis Muscle
Brachioradialis Muscle
Calcaneal (Achilles) Tendon
Clavicular Head of Pectoralis Major Muscle
Clavicular Head of Sternocleidomastoid Muscle
Coracobrachialis Muscle
Cross-Sections of Muscles of the Arm and Leg
Deltoid Muscle
Depressor Anguli Oris Muscle
Depressor Labii Inferioris Muscle
Digital Fibrous Sheaths
Dorsal Interosseous Muscles of Foot
Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis Muscle
Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis Tendon
Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus Muscle
Extensor Carpi Ulnaris Muscle
Extensor Digiti Minimi Muscle
Extensor Digitorum Brevis Muscle
Extensor Digitorum Longus Muscle
Extensor Digitorum Muscle
Extensor Hallucis Brevis Muscle
Extensor Hallucis Longus Muscle
Extensor Pollicis Brevis Muscle
Extensor Retinaculum of Hand
External Abdominal Oblique Muscle
Flexor Carpi Radialis Muscle
Flexor Carpi Ulnaris Muscle
Flexor Digiti Minimi Brevis Muscle of Hand
Flexor Digitorum Longus Muscle
Flexor Digitorum Profundus Muscle
Flexor Digitorum Superficialis Muscle
Flexor Hallucis Longus Muscle
Flexor Pollicis Brevis Muscle
Flexor Retinaculum of Foot
Flexor Retinaculum of Hand
Frontal Belly of Epicranius Muscle (Frontalis Muscle)
Galea Aponeurotica
Gastrocnemius Muscle (Lateral Head)
Gastrocnemius Muscle (Medial Head)
Gluteus Maximus Muscle
Gluteus Minimus Muscle
Gracilis Muscle
Iliacus Muscle
Iliopsoas Muscle
Iliotibial Tract
Inferior Extensor Retinaculum
Infraspinatus Muscle
Inguinal Ligament
Internal Abdominal Oblique Muscle
Latissimus Dorsi Muscle
Levator Labii Superioris Alaeque Nasi Muscle
Levator Labii Superioris Muscle
Levator Scapulae Muscle
Lumbrical Muscles of Foot
Lumbrical Muscles of Hand
Masseter Muscle
Mentalis Muscle
Muscle Cell Types
Nasalis Muscle
Occipital Belly of Epicranius Muscle (Occipitalis Muscle)
Omohyoid Muscle
Opponens Pollicis Muscle
Orbicularis Oculi Muscle
Orbicularis Oris Muscle
Palmar Interosseous Muscles
Palmaris Longus Muscle
Pectineus Muscle
Peroneus Brevis Muscle
Peroneus Longus Muscle
Peroneus Tertius Muscle
Plantaris Tendon
Platysma Muscle
Pronation/Supination
Pronator Quadratus Muscle
Pronator Teres Muscle
Push/Pull Muscles
Quadriceps Femoris Tendon
Rectus Abdominis Muscle
Rectus Femoris Muscle
Risorius Muscle
Sartorius Muscle
Scalene Muscles
Semimembranosus Muscle
Semispinalis Capitis Muscle
Semitendinosus Muscle
Serratus Anterior Muscle
Soleus Muscle
Splenius Capitis Muscle
Sternal Head of Sternocleidomastoid Muscle
Sternocostal Head of Pectoralis Major Muscle
Sternohyoid Muscle
Superior Extensor Retinaculum
Supinator Muscle
Temporalis Muscle
Teres Major Muscle
Teres Minor Muscle
Thoracolumbar Fascia
Tibialis Anterior Muscle
Tibialis Posterior Muscle
Trapezius Muscle
Triceps Brachii Muscle (Lateral Head)
Triceps Brachii Muscle (Long Head)
Triceps Brachii Muscle (Medial Head)
Vastus Lateralis Muscle
Vastus Medialis Muscle
Zygomaticus Major Muscle
Zygomaticus Minor Muscle
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Male
Female
Full Muscular System Description
[Continued from above] . . .
Muscular System Anatomy
Muscle Types
There are three types of muscle tissue: Visceral, cardiac, and skeletal.
1. Visceral Muscle. Visceral muscle is found inside of organs like the stomach, intestines, and blood
vessels. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscle makes organs contract to move
substances through the organ. Because visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of
the brain, it is known as involuntary muscleit cannot be directly controlled by the conscious
mind. The term smooth muscle is often used to describe visceral muscle because it has a very
smooth, uniform appearance when viewed under a microscope. This smooth appearance starkly
contrasts with the banded appearance of cardiac and skeletal muscles.

2. Cardiac Muscle. Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood
throughout the body. Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an
involuntary muscle. While hormones and signals from the brain adjust the rate of contraction,
cardiac muscle stimulates itself to contract. The natural pacemaker of the heart is made of
cardiac muscle tissue that stimulates other cardiac muscle cells to contract. Because of its self-
stimulation, cardiac muscle is considered to be autorhythmic or intrinsically controlled.

The cells of cardiac muscle tissue are striatedthat is, they appear to have light and dark stripes
when viewed under a light microscope. The arrangement of protein fibers inside of the cells
causes these light and dark bands. Striations indicate that a muscle cell is very strong, unlike
visceral muscles.

The cells of cardiac muscle are branched X or Y shaped cells tightly connected together by
special junctions called intercalated disks. Intercalated disks are made up of fingerlike
projections from two neighboring cells that interlock and provide a strong bond between the
cells. The branched structure and intercalated disks allow the muscle cells to resist high blood
pressures and the strain of pumping blood throughout a lifetime. These features also help to
spread electrochemical signals quickly from cell to cell so that the heart can beat as a unit.

3. Skeletal Muscle. Skeletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human bodyit is
controlled consciously. Every physical action that a person consciously performs (e.g. speaking,
walking, or writing) requires skeletal muscle. The function of skeletal muscle is to contract to
move parts of the body closer to the bone that the muscle is attached to. Most skeletal muscles
are attached to two bones across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones
closer to each other.

Skeletal muscle cells form when many smaller progenitor cells lump themselves together to
form long, straight, multinucleated fibers. Striated just like cardiac muscle, these skeletal muscle
fibers are very strong. Skeletal muscle derives its name from the fact that these muscles always
connect to the skeleton in at least one place.
Gross Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle
Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones through tendons. Tendons are tough bands of
dense regular connective tissue whose strong collagen fibers firmly attach muscles to bones.
Tendons are under extreme stress when muscles pull on them, so they are very strong and are
woven into the coverings of both muscles and bones.
Muscles move by shortening their length, pulling on tendons, and moving bones closer to each
other. One of the bones is pulled towards the other bone, which remains stationary. The place on
the stationary bone that is connected via tendons to the muscle is called the origin. The place on
the moving bone that is connected to the muscle via tendons is called the insertion. The belly of
the muscle is the fleshy part of the muscle in between the tendons that does the actual
contraction.
Names of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles are named based on many different factors, including their location, origin and
insertion, number of origins, shape, size, direction, and function.
Location. Many muscles derive their names from their anatomical region. The rectus abdominis
and transverse abdominis, for example, are found in the abdominal region. Some muscles, like
the tibialis anterior, are named after the part of the bone (the anterior portion of the tibia) that
they are attached to. Other muscles use a hybrid of these two, like the brachioradialis, which is
named after a region (brachial) and a bone (radius).

Origin and Insertion. Some muscles are named based upon their connection to a stationary bone
(origin) and a moving bone (insertion). These muscles become very easy to identify once you
know the names of the bones that they are attached to. Examples of this type of muscle include
the sternocleidomastoid (connecting the sternum and clavicle to the mastoid process of the
skull) and the occipitofrontalis (connecting the occipital bone to the frontal bone).

Number of Origins. Some muscles connect to more than one bone or to more than one place on
a bone, and therefore have more than one origin. A muscle with two origins is called a biceps. A
muscle with three origins is a triceps muscle. Finally, a muscle with four origins is a quadriceps
muscle.

Shape, Size, and Direction. We also classify muscles by their shapes. For example, the deltoids
have a delta or triangular shape. The serratus muscles feature a serrated or saw-like shape. The
rhomboid major is a rhombus or diamond shape. The size of the muscle can be used to
distinguish between two muscles found in the same region. The gluteal region contains three
muscles differentiated by sizethe gluteus maximus (large), gluteus medius (medium), and
gluteus minimus (smallest). Finally, the direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to
identify a muscle. In the abdominal region, there are several sets of wide, flat muscles. The
muscles whose fibers run straight up and down are the rectus abdominis, the ones running
transversely (left to right) are the transverse abdominis, and the ones running at an angle are
the obliques.

Function. Muscles are sometimes classified by the type of function that they perform. Most of
the muscles of the forearms are named based on their function because they are located in the
same region and have similar shapes and sizes. For example, the flexor group of the forearm
flexes the wrist and the fingers. The supinator is a muscle that supinates the wrist by rolling it
over to face palm up. In the leg, there are muscles called adductors whose role is to adduct (pull
together) the legs.
Groups Action in Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles rarely work by themselves to achieve movements in the body. More often they
work in groups to produce precise movements. The muscle that produces any particular
movement of the body is known as an agonist or prime mover. The agonist always pairs with an
antagonist muscle that produces the opposite effect on the same bones. For example, the biceps
brachii muscle flexes the arm at the elbow. As the antagonist for this motion, the triceps brachii
muscle extends the arm at the elbow. When the triceps is extending the arm, the biceps would be
considered the antagonist.
In addition to the agonist/antagonist pairing, other muscles work to support the movements of the
agonist. Synergists are muscles that help to stabilize a movement and reduce extraneous
movements. They are usually found in regions near the agonist and often connect to the same
bones. Because skeletal muscles move the insertion closer to the immobile origin, fixator
muscles assist in movement by holding the origin stable. If you lift something heavy with your
arms, fixators in the trunk region hold your body upright and immobile so that you maintain your
balance while lifting.
Skeletal Muscle Histology
Skeletal muscle fibers differ dramatically from other tissues of the body due to their highly
specialized functions. Many of the organelles that make up muscle fibers are unique to this type
of cell.

The sarcolemma is the cell membrane of muscle fibers. The sarcolemma acts as a conductor for
electrochemical signals that stimulate muscle cells. Connected to the sarcolemma are transverse
tubules (T-tubules) that help carry these electrochemical signals into the middle of the muscle
fiber. The sarcoplasmic reticulum serves as a storage facility for calcium ions (Ca2+) that are
vital to muscle contraction. Mitochondria, the power houses of the cell, are abundant in muscle
cells to break down sugars and provide energy in the form of ATP to active muscles. Most of the
muscle fibers structure is made up of myofibrils, which are the contractile structures of the cell.
Myofibrils are made up of many proteins fibers arranged into repeating subunits called
sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the functional unit of muscle fibers.
Sarcomere Structure
Sarcomeres are made of two types of protein fibers: thick filaments and thin filaments.
Thick filaments. Thick filaments are made of many bonded units of the protein myosin. Myosin is
the protein that causes muscles to contract.
Thin filaments. Thin filaments are made of three proteins:
1. Actin. Actin forms a helical structure that makes up the bulk of the thin filament mass.
Actin contains myosin-binding sites that allow myosin to connect to and move actin
during muscle contraction.
2. Tropomyosin. Tropomyosin is a long protein fiber that wraps around actin and covers
the myosin binding sites on actin.
3. Troponin. Bound very tightly to tropomyosin, troponin moves tropomyosin away from
myosin binding sites during muscle contraction.
Muscular System Physiology
Function of Muscle Tissue
The main function of the muscular system is movement. Muscles are the only tissue in the body
that has the ability to contract and therefore move the other parts of the body.
Related to the function of movement is the muscular systems second function: the maintenance
of posture and body position. Muscles often contract to hold the body still or in a particular
position rather than to cause movement. The muscles responsible for the bodys posture have the
greatest endurance of all muscles in the bodythey hold up the body throughout the day without
becoming tired.
Another function related to movement is the movement of substances inside the body. The
cardiac and visceral muscles are primarily responsible for transporting substances like blood or
food from one part of the body to another.
The final function of muscle tissue is the generation of body heat. As a result of the high
metabolic rate of contracting muscle, our muscular system produces a great deal of waste heat.
Many small muscle contractions within the body produce our natural body heat. When we exert
ourselves more than normal, the extra muscle contractions lead to a rise in body temperature and
eventually to sweating.
Skeletal Muscles as Levers
Skeletal muscles work together with bones and joints to form lever systems. The muscle acts as
the effort force; the joint acts as the fulcrum; the bone that the muscle moves acts as the lever;
and the object being moved acts as the load.
There are three classes of levers, but the vast majority of the levers in the body are third class
levers. A third class lever is a system in which the fulcrum is at the end of the lever and the effort
is between the fulcrum and the load at the other end of the lever. The third class levers in the
body serve to increase the distance moved by the load compared to the distance that the muscle
contracts.
The tradeoff for this increase in distance is that the force required to move the load must be
greater than the mass of the load. For example, the biceps brachia of the arm pulls on the radius
of the forearm, causing flexion at the elbow joint in a third class lever system. A very slight
change in the length of the biceps causes a much larger movement of the forearm and hand, but
the force applied by the biceps must be higher than the load moved by the muscle.
Motor Units
Nerve cells called motor neurons control the skeletal muscles. Each motor neuron controls
several muscle cells in a group known as a motor unit. When a motor neuron receives a signal
from the brain, it stimulates all of the muscles cells in its motor unit at the same time.
The size of motor units varies throughout the body, depending on the function of a muscle.
Muscles that perform fine movementslike those of the eyes or fingershave very few muscle
fibers in each motor unit to improve the precision of the brains control over these structures.
Muscles that need a lot of strength to perform their functionlike leg or arm muscleshave
many muscle cells in each motor unit. One of the ways that the body can control the strength of
each muscle is by determining how many motor units to activate for a given function. This
explains why the same muscles that are used to pick up a pencil are also used to pick up a
bowling ball.
Contraction Cycle
Muscles contract when stimulated by signals from their motor neurons. Motor neurons contact
muscle cells at a point called the Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ). Motor neurons release
neurotransmitter chemicals at the NMJ that bond to a special part of the sarcolemma known as
the motor end plate. The motor end plate contains many ion channels that open in response to
neurotransmitters and allow positive ions to enter the muscle fiber. The positive ions form an
electrochemical gradient to form inside of the cell, which spreads throughout the sarcolemma
and the T-tubules by opening even more ion channels.

When the positive ions reach the sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca2+ ions are released and allowed to
flow into the myofibrils. Ca2+ ions bind to troponin, which causes the troponin molecule to
change shape and move nearby molecules of tropomyosin. Tropomyosin is moved away from
myosin binding sites on actin molecules, allowing actin and myosin to bind together.
ATP molecules power myosin proteins in the thick filaments to bend and pull on actin molecules
in the thin filaments. Myosin proteins act like oars on a boat, pulling the thin filaments closer to
the center of a sarcomere. As the thin filaments are pulled together, the sarcomere shortens and
contracts. Myofibrils of muscle fibers are made of many sarcomeres in a row, so that when all of
the sarcomeres contract, the muscle cells shortens with a great force relative to its size.
Muscles continue contraction as long as they are stimulated by a neurotransmitter. When a motor
neuron stops the release of the neurotransmitter, the process of contraction reverses itself.
Calcium returns to the sarcoplasmic reticulum; troponin and tropomyosin return to their resting
positions; and actin and myosin are prevented from binding. Sarcomeres return to their elongated
resting state once the force of myosin pulling on actin has stopped.
Types of Muscle Contraction
The strength of a muscles contraction can be controlled by two factors: the number of motor
units involved in contraction and the amount of stimulus from the nervous system. A single
nerve impulse of a motor neuron will cause a motor unit to contract briefly before relaxing. This
small contraction is known as a twitch contraction. If the motor neuron provides several signals
within a short period of time, the strength and duration of the muscle contraction increases. This
phenomenon is known as temporal summation. If the motor neuron provides many nerve
impulses in rapid succession, the muscle may enter the state of tetanus, or complete and lasting
contraction. A muscle will remain in tetanus until the nerve signal rate slows or until the muscle
becomes too fatigued to maintain the tetanus.
Not all muscle contractions produce movement. Isometric contractions are light contractions that
increase the tension in the muscle without exerting enough force to move a body part. When
people tense their bodies due to stress, they are performing an isometric contraction. Holding an
object still and maintaining posture are also the result of isometric contractions. A contraction
that does produce movement is an isotonic contraction. Isotonic contractions are required to
develop muscle mass through weight lifting.
Muscle tone is a natural condition in which a skeletal muscle stays partially contracted at all
times. Muscle tone provides a slight tension on the muscle to prevent damage to the muscle and
joints from sudden movements, and also helps to maintain the bodys posture. All muscles
maintain some amount of muscle tone at all times, unless the muscle has been disconnected from
the central nervous system due to nerve damage.
Functional Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Skeletal muscle fibers can be divided into two types based on how they produce and use energy:
Type I and Type II.
1. Type I fibers are very slow and deliberate in their contractions. They are very resistant to fatigue
because they use aerobic respiration to produce energy from sugar. We find Type I fibers in
muscles throughout the body for stamina and posture. Near the spine and neck regions, very
high concentrations of Type I fibers hold the body up throughout the day.

2. Type II fibers are broken down into two subgroups: Type II A and Type II B.
Type II A fibers are faster and stronger than Type I fibers, but do not have as much endurance.
Type II A fibers are found throughout the body, but especially in the legs where they work to
support your body throughout a long day of walking and standing.

Type II B fibers are even faster and stronger than Type II A, but have even less endurance. Type
II B fibers are also much lighter in color than Type I and Type II A due to their lack of myoglobin,
an oxygen-storing pigment. We find Type II B fibers throughout the body, but particularly in the
upper body where they give speed and strength to the arms and chest at the expense of
stamina.
Muscle Metabolism and Fatigue
Muscles get their energy from different sources depending on the situation that the muscle is
working in. Muscles use aerobic respiration when we call on them to produce a low to moderate
level of force. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen to produce about 36-38 ATP molecules from
a molecule of glucose. Aerobic respiration is very efficient, and can continue as long as a muscle
receives adequate amounts of oxygen and glucose to keep contracting. When we use muscles to
produce a high level of force, they become so tightly contracted that oxygen carrying blood
cannot enter the muscle. This condition causes the muscle to create energy using lactic acid
fermentation, a form of anaerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration is much less efficient than
aerobic respirationonly 2 ATP are produced for each molecule of glucose. Muscles quickly
tire as they burn through their energy reserves under anaerobic respiration.
To keep muscles working for a longer period of time, muscle fibers contain several important
energy molecules. Myoglobin, a red pigment found in muscles, contains iron and stores oxygen
in a manner similar to hemoglobin in the blood. The oxygen from myoglobin allows muscles to
continue aerobic respiration in the absence of oxygen. Another chemical that helps to keep
muscles working is creatine phosphate. Muscles use energy in the form of ATP, converting ATP
to ADP to release its energy. Creatine phosphate donates its phosphate group to ADP to turn it
back into ATP in order to provide extra energy to the muscle. Finally, muscle fibers contain
energy-storing glycogen, a large macromolecule made of many linked glucoses. Active muscles
break glucoses off of glycogen molecules to provide an internal fuel supply.
When muscles run out of energy during either aerobic or anaerobic respiration, the muscle
quickly tires and loses its ability to contract. This condition is known as muscle fatigue. A
fatigued muscle contains very little or no oxygen, glucose or ATP, but instead has many waste
products from respiration, like lactic acid and ADP. The body must take in extra oxygen after
exertion to replace the oxygen that was stored in myoglobin in the muscle fiber as well as to
power the aerobic respiration that will rebuild the energy supplies inside of the cell. Oxygen debt
(or recovery oxygen uptake) is the name for the extra oxygen that the body must take in to
restore the muscle cells to their resting state. This explains why you feel out of breath for a few
minutes after a strenuous activityyour body is trying to restore itself to its normal state.
Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor





















Muscular System
Human Anatomy Body Systems Muscular System
Muscular System Outline:
Components
Muscles: Muscles are special type of tissues of human body that posess the ability of
contraction and relaxation. They can contract actively thus producing force for different
body movements.
Types of
Muscle
Skeletal
Muscle
Striated, under voluntary control, found attached to skeleton, produce
major movements of body parts
Smooth
Muscle
Non striated, not under voluntary control, found in soft organs of body,
responsible for processes like digestion of food etc.
Cardiac
Muscle
Striated, involuntary, present exclusively in heart, responsible for
pumping activit of heart, very strong and tough

Functions
Movements of body parts, Stability and Posture, Heat production, Circulation, Help in
Digestion
Introduction to Muscular System:

Muscular System
Muscular system is the system of Human Body that provides motor power for all movements of
body parts. Muscular system is composed of special tissue called muscular tissue. Muscles have
the ability to contract actvely to provide the force for movements of body parts. Muscular system
is an important system of human body because without it, life will completely stop. Muscles
produce not only those movements that are under the control of our will and that we can see and
feel, but also those movements that are responsible for activities like breathing, digestion of
food, pumping of blood etc.
Muscles:
Muscles are body tissues that provide the force for all body movements. They are made of
special types of cells. For details of structure and types of muscles, please see the basic anatomy
article . For details of microscopic structure of muscles, pleas see the histology article .
Types of muscles:
Muscles are basically of three types; Skeletal Muscles, Smooth Muscles and Cardiac Muscles.
Skeletal Muscles:
Skeletal muscles form most of the human body weight. They are under the control of human will
and all body movements occurring by our will are produced by skeletal muscles. They are called
skeletal muscles because they are almost always found attached to the skeleton and produce
movements in different parts of the skeleton.
Smooth Muscles:
Smooth muscles form the soft body organs like stomach, intestine, blood vessels etc. They are
not under the will of human beings and are responsible for unconscious body activities like
digestion of food. They are called smooth muscles because when seen under the microscope,
they do not have any striation in contrast to the other two types of muscles.
Cardiac Muscles:
Cardiac muscles are exclusively found in human heart and no where else. They are extremely
strong and powerful muscles. They are not under the control of human will and are involuntary.
The pumping of blood by human heart is because of the force provided by the contraction of
cardiac muscles.

Skeletal Muscle

Smooth Muscle

Cardiac Muscle
Functions of Muscular System:
Muscular system has the following important functions in human body;
1. MOVEMENTS OF BODY PARTS: Skeletal muscles are responsible for all voluntary movements of
human body parts. They provide the force by contracting actively at the expense of energy. In
other words, muscles are motors of body where chemical energy of food is converted into
mechanical work.
2. STABILITY AND POSTURE: Skeletal muscles stabilize human skeleton and give a proper posture
to human beings. Some joints of human body are weak and they require the support of
muscular system to achieve stability. Skeletal muscles are very important for such joints.
3. HEAT PRODUCTION: A large share of bodys energy is used by muscular system. As a result of
high metabolic rate, muscles produce great amount of heat in the body. Heat produced by
muscles is very important in cold climates.
4. CIRCULATION: Cardiac muscles provide the main force for circulation of blood throughout
human body. The regular pumping of heat keeps the blood in motion and nutrients are readily
available to every tissue of human body.
5. HELP IN DIGESTION: Smooth muscles of organs like stomach and intestine help the digestive
system in the process of digestion of food.





















The Muscular System

The muscular system makes up nearly half the weight of the human body, this is why when we
train we sometimes put on weight instead of losing it. We put on muscle weight.
The muscles provide the forces that enable the body to move. Muscles stretch across joints to
link one bone with another and work in groups to respond to nerve impulses.

Click here for 8 superb A4 size downloadable human body system pictures, including diagrams
of the human body muscular system!
There are three types of muscle:

Skeletal muscle
There are nearly 650 skeletal muscles in the human body!
Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton
They work in pairs: one muscle moves the bone in one direction and the other moves it back again
Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles - in other words we think about what movements we want to
make (at least, usually!) and send messages via our nervous system to tell the appropriate muscle(s) to
contract.
Muscle contractions can be short, single contractions or longer ones.


Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle is found in our internal organs: in our digestive system, our blood vessels, our bladder,
our respiratory organs and, in a female, the uterus.
Smooth muscle can stretch and maintain tension over extended periods
Smooth muscles are involuntary muscles - in other words we do not have to think about contracting them
because they are controlled automatically by the nervous system. It would be pretty inconvenient if we
had to think about digesting our food, for example!

Cardiac muscle
As the name should tell you, cardiac muscle is found only in the heart.
It can stretch, just like smooth muscle, and contract like skeletal muscle.
It is a twitch muscle - it only does short single contractions
Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle is involuntary. It'd be rather dangerous if it were voluntary - we could
stop our heart beating any time we wanted!




For more information take a look at the articles below:
Muscle Structure
Information on how our muscles work. Click Here

Muscle Diagram
A diagram of the main muscles in the human body. Click Here

Repetitive Strain Injury
What is repetitive strain injury? Click Here