CHAPTER 2
SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
2.1 Introduction to Shape Memory Aoy! "SMA#
A shape memory alloy (SMA, smart metal, memory metal, memory alloy, muscle
wire, smart alloy) is an alloy that "remembers" its original, cold-forged shape: returning the
pre-deformed shape by heating. hen an SMA is cold, or below its transformation
temperature, it has a !ery low yield strength and can be deformed "uite easily into any new
shape, which it will retain. #owe!er, when the material is heated abo!e its transformation
temperature it undergoes a change in crystal structure which causes it to return to its original
shape. $f the SMA encounters any resistance during this transformation, it can generate
e%tremely large forces. &his phenomenon pro!ides a uni"ue mechanism for remote
actuation. $t is a lightweight, solid-state material alternati!e to con!entional actuators such as
hydraulic, pneumatic, and motor-based systems. Shape memory alloys ha!e applications in
industries including medical and aerospace.
2.2 O$er$ie%
&he three main types of shape memory alloys are the copper-'inc-aluminium-nic(el,
copper-aluminium-nic(el, and nic(el-titanium ()i&i) alloys but SMAs can also be created by
alloying 'inc, copper, gold and iron. )i&i alloys are generally more e%pensi!e and change
from austenite to martensite upon cooling* Mf is the temperature at which the transition to
martensite completes upon cooling. Accordingly, during heating As and Af are the
temperatures at which the transformation from martensite to austenite starts and finishes.
+epeated use of the shape memory effect may lead to a shift of the characteristic
transformation temperatures (this effect is (nown as functional fatigue, as it is closely related
with a change of microstructural and functional properties of the material).
&he transition from the martensite phase to the austenite phase is only dependent on
temperature and stress, not time, as most phase changes are, as there is no diffusion
in!ol!ed. Similarly, the austenite structure recei!es its name from steel alloys of a similar
structure. $t is the re!ersible diffusionless transition between these two phases that results in
special properties. hile martensite can be formed from austenite by rapidly cooling carbon-
steel, this process is not re!ersible, so steel does not ha!e shape memory properties.
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,ig -... +elation between Martensite fraction and temperature
$n this figure, /(&) represents the martensite fraction. &he difference between the heating
transition and the cooling transition gi!es rise to hysteresis where some of the mechanical
energy is lost in the process. &he shape of the cur!e depends on the material properties of
the shape memory alloy, such as the alloying and wor( hardening.
2.& One'%ay and t%o'%ay !hape memory
Shape memory alloys ha!e different shape memory effects. &wo common effects are
one-way and two-way shape memory.
2.&.1 One'%ay memory e((ect
hen a shape memory alloy is in its cold state (below As), the metal can be bent or
stretched and will hold those shapes until heated abo!e the transition temperature. 0pon
heating, the shape changes to its original. hen the metal cools again it will remain in the
hot shape, until deformed again.
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Fig 2.2 1ne-way memory effect
ith the one-way effect in figure -.-, cooling from high temperatures does not cause
a macroscopic shape change. A deformation is necessary to create the low-temperature
shape. 1n heating, transformation starts at As and is completed at Af (typically - to -2 34 or
hotter, depending on the alloy or the loading conditions). As is determined by the alloy type
and composition and can !ary between 5.62 34 and -22 34.
2.&.2 T%o'%ay memory e((ect
&he two-way shape memory effect is the effect that the material remembers two
different shapes: one at low temperatures, and one at the high-temperature shape. A
material that shows a shape memory effect during both heating and cooling is called two-
way shape memory. &his can also be obtained without the application of an e%ternal force
(intrinsic two-way effect). &he reason the material beha!es so differently in these situations
lies in training. &raining implies that a shape memory can "learn" to beha!e in a certain way.
0nder normal circumstances, a shape memory alloy "remembers" its high-temperature
shape, but upon heating to reco!er the high-temperature shape, immediately "forgets" the
low-temperature shape. #owe!er, it can be "trained" to "remember" to lea!e some reminders
of the deformed low-temperature condition in the high-temperature phases. &here are
se!eral ways of doing this. A shaped, trained ob7ect heated beyond a certain point will lose
the two-way memory effect, this is (nown as "amnesia8.
$n the fig.-.9, the procedures are !ery similar: starting from martensite (a), adding a
re!ersible deformation for the one-way effect or se!ere deformation with an irre!ersible
amount for the two-way (b), heating the sample (c) and cooling it again (d).
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,ig -.9 T%o'%ay memory e((ect
2.) Cry!ta Structure
Many metals ha!e se!eral different crystal structures at the same composition, but
most metals do not show this shape memory effect. &he special property that allows shape
memory alloys to re!ert to their original shape after heating is that their crystal
transformation is fully re!ersible. $n most crystal transformations, the atoms in the structure
will tra!el through the metal by diffusion, changing the composition locally, e!en though the
metal as a whole is made of the same atoms. A re!ersible transformation does not in!ol!e
this diffusion of atoms, instead all the atoms shift at the same time to form a new structure,
much in the way a parallelogram can be made out of a s"uare by pushing on two opposing
sides. At different temperatures, different structures are preferred and when the structure is
cooled through the transition temperature, the martensitic structure forms from the austenitic
phase.
2.* P!eudo Ea!ticity
1ne of the commercial uses of shape memory alloy e%ploits the pseudo-elastic
properties of the metal during the high-temperature (austenitic) phase. &he frames of
reading glasses ha!e been made of shape memory alloy as they can undergo large
deformations in their high-temperature state and then instantly re!ert bac( to their original
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shape when the stress is remo!ed. &his is the result of pseudoelasticity
the martensitic phase is generated by stressing the metal in the austenitic state and this
martensite phase is capable of large strains. ith the remo!al of the load, the martensite
transforms bac( into the austenite phase and resumes its original shape.
&his allows the metal to be bent, twisted and pulled, before reforming its shape when
released. &his means the frames of shape memory alloy glasses are claimed to be "nearly
indestructible" because it appears no amount of bending results in
permanent plastic deformation.
&he martensite temperature of shape memory alloys is dependent on a number of
factors including alloy chemistry. Shape memory alloys with transformation temperatures in
the range of :2;.<62 = ha!e been made.
1.+ Manu(acture o( Shape Memory Aoy!
Shape memory alloys are typically made by casting, using !acuum arc melting or
induction melting. &hese are specialist techni"ues used to (eep impurities in the alloy to a
minimum and ensure the metals are well mi%ed. &he ingot is then hot rolled into longer
sections and then drawn to turn it into wire.
&he way in which the alloys are "trained" depends on the properties wanted. &he
"training" dictates the shape that the alloy will remember when it is heated. &his occurs by
heating the alloy so that the dislocations re-order into stable positions, but not so hot that the
material recrystalli'es. &hey are heated to between <22 34 and 622 34 for 92 minutes.
&ypical !ariables for some alloys are 622 34 and for more than 6 minutes. &hey are then
shaped while hot and are cooled rapidly by "uenching in water or by cooling with air.
2., Propertie! o( -itino
&he copper-based and )i&i-based shape memory alloys are considered to be
engineering materials. &hese compositions can be manufactured to almost any shape and
si'e.
&he yield strength of shape memory alloys is lower than that of con!entional steel,
but some compositions ha!e a higher yield strength than plastic or aluminum. &he yield
stress for )i &i can reach 622 M>a. &he high cost of the metal itself and the processing
re"uirements ma(e it difficult and e%pensi!e to implement SMAs into a design. As a result,
these materials are used in applications where the super elastic properties or the shape
memory effect can be e%ploited. &he most common application is in actuation.
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1ne of the ad!antages to using shape memory alloys is the high le!el of reco!erable
plastic strain that can be induced. &he ma%imum reco!erable strain these materials can hold
without permanent damage is up to ?@ for some alloys. &his compares with a ma%imum
strain 2.6@ for con!entional steels.
2.,.1 Phy!ica propertie! o( -itino
A Bensity: :.<6gmsCcc
A Melting &emperature: .-<2-.9.23 4
A +esisti!ity (hi-temp state): ?- uohm-cm
A +esisti!ity (lo-temp state): D: uohm-cm
A &hermal 4onducti!ity: 2.. Ccm-3 4
A #eat 4apacity: 2.2DD calCgm-3 4
A Eatent #eat: 6.D? calCgm* -<.- FCgm
A Magnetic Susceptibility (hi-temp): 9.? uemuCgm
A Magnetic Susceptibility (lo-temp): -.6 uemuCgm
2.,.2 Mechanica Propertie! O( -itino
A 0ltimate &ensile Strength: D6< - G:2 M>a or ..2 - .<2 (si
A &ypical Hlongation to ,racture: .6.6 percent
A &ypical Iield Strength (hi-temp): 6:2 M>a, ?2 (si
A &ypical Iield Strength (lo-temp): .22 M>a, .6 (si
A Appro%imate Hlastic Modulus (hi-tem): D6 J>a, .. Mpsi
A Appro%imate Hlastic Modulus (lo-temp): -? J>a, < Mpsi
A Appro%imate >oissonKs +atio: 2.9
2.. Appication! O( Shape Memory Aoy!
2...1 Aircra(t
Loeing, Jeneral Hlectric Aircraft Hngines, Joodrich 4orporation, )ASA, and All
)ippon Airways de!eloped the Mariable Jeometry 4he!ron using shape memory alloy that
reduces aircraftKs engine noise.
2...2 Pipin/
&he first consumer commercial application for the material was as a shape memory
coupling for piping, e.g. oil line pipes for industrial applications, water pipes and similar types
of piping for consumerCcommercial applications. &he late .G?2s saw the commercial
introduction of )itinol as an enabling technology in a number of minimally in!asi!e
endo!ascular medical applications. hile more costly than stainless steel, the self
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e%panding properties of )itinol alloys manufactured to L&+ (Lody &emperature +esponse),
ha!e pro!ided an attracti!e alternati!e to balloon e%pandable de!ices. 1n a!erage, 62@ of
all peripheral !ascular stents currently a!ailable on the worldwide mar(et are manufactured
with )itinol.
2...& Ro0otic!
&here ha!e also been limited studies on using these materials in robotics (such as
"+oboterfrau Eara"), as they ma(e it possible to create !ery light robots. ea( points of the
technology are energy inefficiency, slow response times, and large hysteresis.
)itinol wire is also used in robotics (e.g. the hobbyist robot Sti"uito) and in a
few magic tric(s, particularly those in!ol!ing heat and shapes hifting.
2...) Medicine
Shape memory alloys are applied in medicine, for e%ample, as fi%ation de!ices
for osteotomies in orthopaedic surgery, in dental braces to e%ert constant tooth-mo!ing
forces on the teeth and in stent grafts where it gi!es the ability to adapt to the shape of
certain blood !essels when e%posed to body temperature.
2...* Optometry
Hyeglass frames made from titanium-containing SMAs are mar(eted under
the trademar(s ,le%on and &$&A)fle%. &hese frames are usually made out of shape memory
alloys that ha!e their transition temperature set below the e%pected room temperature. &his
allows the frames to undergo large deformation under stress, yet regain their intended shape
once the metal is unloaded again. &he !ery large apparently elastic strains are due to the
stress-induced martensitic effect, where the crystal structure can transform under loading,
allowing the shape to change temporarily under load. &his means that eyeglasses made of
shape memory alloys are more robust against being accidentally damaged.
2.1 Materia!
Alloys of metals ha!ing the memory effect at different temperatures and at different
percentages of its solid solution contents.
Ag-4d <<C<G at.@ 4d
Au-4d <:.6C62 at.@ 4d
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4u-Al-)i .<C.<.6 wt.@ Al and 9C<.6 wt.@ )i
4u-Sn appro%. .6 at.@ Sn
4u-Nn 9?.6C<..6 wt.@ Nn
4u-Nn-O (O P Si, Al, Sn)
,e->t appro%. -6 at.@ >t
Mn-4u 6C96 at.@ 4u
,e-Mn-Si
>t alloys
4o-)i-Al
4o-)i-Ja
)i-,e-Ja
&i->d in !arious concentrations
)i-&i (Q66@ )i)
)i-&i-)b
)i-Mn-Ja
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