AAVSO

Manual for Visual Observing

of Variable Stars
Revised Edition
January 2001
The American Association of Variable Star Observers
25 Birch Street
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138 U. S. A.
Tel: 617-354-0484
Fax: 617-354-0665
Email: aavso@[Link]
Web: [Link]
ii
COPYRIGHT 2001
by the American Association of Variable Star Observers
25 Birch Street
Cambridge, MA 02138
U. S. A.
ISBN 1-878174-32-0
iii
FOREWORD AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is with great pleasure that we present this revised and improved edition of the Manual for Visual
Observing of Variable Stars. This manual is intended to be a comprehensive guide to variable star
observing. It incorporates a lot of the basic information in the Manual for Observing Variable Stars,
published in 1970 by the former Director of the AAVSO, Margaret W. Mayall, as well as information
from various AAVSO observing materials published since then. This manual provides up-to-date
information for making variable star observations and reporting them to the AAVSO.
For new observers, this manual is an essential toolthe one place from which one can gather all
the information needed in order to start a variable star observing program. Long-time and
experienced observers, and those returning to variable star observing, on the other hand, may find
it useful as a ready-reference, quick-resource, or refresher text to help explore new aspects of
variable star observing.
This manual will familiarize you with the standardized processes and procedures of variable star
observinga very important part of making and submitting your observations to the AAVSO.
You will find here new information, presented in a useful format, with chapters arranged in order of
difficulty and grouped by subject-matter. There are many pull-out pages for those who prefer to put
essential information in their own observing notebooks or under a plastic sleeve.
Whether you are a novice or an experienced observer, or even if you are just an armchair observer
who wishes to learn more about variable star observing, we hope this manual will help you to
increase your knowledge of the fundamentals of variable star observing, improve your work at the
telescope, and help you to get more enjoyment and satisfaction from making a real contribution to
the science of variable star astronomy.
The information in this manual has been collected from various AAVSO publications and was
edited by Sara J. Beck, AAVSO Technical Staff. I sincerely thank Sara for the excellent job she
has done in preparing this work.
In addition, many AAVSO members and HQ staff contributed valuable comments and
recommendations to this manual. Many thanks to Carl Feehrer, Peter Guilbault, Gene Hanson,
Haldun Menali, Paul Norris, Ron Royer, Doug Welch and Michael Saladyga. Our special thanks to
Gene Hanson both for providing a chapter in this manual and for his generous contribution toward
the cost of publication.
Janet A. Mattei
Director, AAVSO
iv
...it is a fact that only by the observation of variable stars can the amateur
turn his modest equipment to practical use, and further to any great extent
the pursuit of knowledge in its application to the noblest of the sciences.
William Tyler Olcott, 1911
v
FOREWORD AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
INTRODUCTION vii
What are variable stars?
Why study variable stars?
What is the AAVSO?
Chapter 1 PREPARATIONS 18
Setting up an Observing Program 1
Equipment Needed 3
A Few Words on Eyepieces 4
AAVSO Variable Star Charts 67
Chapter 2 MAKING OBSERVATIONS 916
Step-by-Step Instructions 9
Additional Observing Tips 1115
Field of view 11
Orientation of charts 1112
The magnitude scale 13
Limiting magnitude 1314
Identification of the variable 14
Estimating the variables brightness 1415
Record keeping 15
Chapter 3 ABOUT VARIABLE STARS 1724
The Naming of Variable Stars 17
The Harvard Designation 18
Table 3.1Constellation Names & Abbreviations 19
Types of Variable Stars 2023
What is a light curve? 20
Chapter 4 COMPUTING THE JULIAN DAY & TIME 2534
Step by Step Instructions 25
Sample Calculations 26
Table 4.1 JD Decimal of the Day 29
Table 4.2 Julian Day Number 1996-2025 31
Table 4.3 JD Decimal (to four places) 33
Chapter 5 PLANNING AN OBSERVING SESSION 3538
Making a Plan 35
A Typical Observing Routine 36
Useful AAVSO Publications 37
Chapter 6 SUBMITTING OBSERVATIONS TO THE AAVSO 3948
Ways to Submit Reports 3940
Report Formatting 4143
Table 6.1Precision of JD Needed 42
Table 6.2Abbreviations for Comments
on AAVSO Reports 44
Chapter 7 SAMPLE OBSERVATION 4955
Appendix 1 SAMPLE LONG-TERM LIGHT CURVES 5764
Appendix 2 COMMITTEES OF THE AAVSO 6568
Appendix 3 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 6974
Index 75
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vi
vii
What are variable stars?
Variable stars are stars that change in brightness. Stars often vary in brightness when they are
very young or when they are very old. The cause of variability may be intrinsic to the star (expansion,
contraction, eruption, etc.), or may be due to extrinsic factors such as eclipses of two or more
stars. In the year 2000, over 30,000 variables were known and catalogued while another 14,000
stars were suspected of changing in brightness. Most starsincluding the Sun and the North Star
vary in brightness if measured precisely.
Why study variable stars?
Research on variable stars is important because it can provide fundamental information about the
physical properties, nature, and evolution of stars. Distance, mass, radius, internal and external
structure, composition, temperature, and luminosity can be determined using variable star data.
Since professional astronomers have neither the time nor the resources needed to gather data on
the brightness changes of thousands of variables, amateurs have been making a real and useful
contribution to science by observing variable stars and submitting their observations to the AAVSO
or similar organizations.
The importance of the contribution of the serious amateur observer was first recognized in the
mid-1800s by Friedrich Wilhelm August Argelnder (17991875), a German astronomer, famous
for his Bonner Durchmusterung (BD) star atlas and catalogue. In 1844 when only 30 variable stars
were known, Argelnder wrote in an article: I lay these hitherto sorely neglected variables most
pressingly on the heart of all lovers of the starry heavens. May you increase your enjoyment by
combining the useful and the pleasant while you perform an important part toward the increase of
human knowledge. Argelnders plea is just as appropriate today.
What is the AAVSO?
The American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) is a worldwide, nonprofit, scientific
and educational organization of amateur and professional astronomers who are interested in variable
stars. Founded in 1911 by William Tyler Olcott, an amateur astronomer and lawyer by profession,
and Edward C. Pickering, Director of the Harvard College Observatory, the AAVSO was part of the
Harvard College Observatory until 1954 when it became an independent, private research
organization. Its purpose wasand still isto coordinate, collect, evaluate, analyze, publish, and
archive variable star observations made largely by amateur astronomers, and to make these
observations available to professional astronomers, educators, and students. In the year 2000,
with over 1000 members in 45 countries, and headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA,
it is the worlds largest association of variable star observers.
In 2000, the archives of the AAVSO contained nearly 10 million observations on over 5000 stars.
Approximately 600 observers from around the world submit about 350,000 observations every
year. At the end of each month, incoming observations are sorted by observer and checked for
obvious errors. The observations are then digitized, processed, and added to the data files for
each star in the AAVSO International Database. This database is a tribute to the skill, enthusiastic
devotion, and dedication of AAVSO observers since 1911.
Services to the Astronomical Community
AAVSO data, both published and unpublished, are disseminated extensively to astronomers around
the world, via the AAVSO website (http:\\[Link]) or upon request of AAVSO Headquarters.
AAVSO services are sought by astronomers for the following purposes:
a. Real-time, up-to-date information on unusual stellar activity;
b. Assistance in scheduling and executing of variable star observing programs using
earth-based large telescopes and instruments aboard satellites;
c. Assistance in simultaneous optical observations of program stars and immediate
INTRODUCTION
viii
notification of their activity during earth-based or satellite observing programs;
d. Correlation of AAVSO optical data with spectroscopic, photometric, and polarimetric
multi-wavelength data;
e. Collaborative statistical analysis of stellar behavior using long-term AAVSO data.
Collaboration between the AAVSO and professional astronomers for real-time information or
simultaneous optical observations has enabled the successful execution of many observing
programs, particularly those using satellites such as Apollo-Soyuz, HEAO 1 and 2, IUE, EXOSAT,
HIPPARCOS, HST, RXTE, and EUVE. A significant number of rare events have been observed
with these satellites as a result of timely notification by the AAVSO.
Services to Observers and Educators
The AAVSO enables variable star observers to contribute vitally to astronomy by accepting their
observations, incorporating them into the AAVSO data files, publishing them, and making them
available to the professional astronomer. Incorporating your observations into the AAVSO
International Database means that future researchers will have access to those observations,
giving you the opportunity to contribute to the science of the future as well as the present.
Upon request, the AAVSO will help set up an appropriate observing program for an individual, an
astronomy club, an elementary school, high school, college, etc. In this way, observers, students,
and faculty are able to make the best use of their resources and to do valuable science. The
AAVSO can also assist in teaching observing techniques and in suggesting stars to be included in
a program.
1
Setting up an Observing Program
Getting started
All new members of the AAVSO are given a
package of observing materials, including this
booklet, and an initial set of AAVSO Charts. Please
read these materials carefully and feel free to
contact the AAVSO at any stage with questions
you might have.
One of the most daunting tasks for a new
observer, is locating the variable stars in the sky.
The charts included with your package of
observing materials are for stars which are
considered to be relatively easy to find, due to
their proximity to other bright, easily-located stars.
In addition, most of the stars are long period and
semiregular variables. The large amplitudes and
slow rates of variation of these stars allow you to
become experienced at making brightness
estimates.
Setting up an observing program
Selecting which stars you wish to track, gathering
the necessary observing equipment, choosing an
observing site, and deciding when and how often
you wish to observe, are all part of setting up a
successful observing program. To obtain the
maximum benefits from variable star observing,
which include scientifically useful data and
personal satisfaction, you should establish an
observing program that is suited to your own
personal interests, experience, equipment, and
observing site conditions. Even if you submit just
one observation a month, you will be making an
important contribution to the field of variable star
astronomy.
Help is available
Sometimes, there is no substitute for hands-on
training. To further assist new observers who
request help getting started, the AAVSO has a
mentorship program which connects new
observers with more experienced observers in
their geographical area, whenever possible.
Information about this program is also included
with the new member package.
Another resource, available to new and
experienced observers alike, is the AAVSO
Discussion group. This is an email based forum
in which observers can post their questions or
make comments, and other AAVSO members
and observers can respond to their inquiries.
Information on how to access this service is also
included in the new member package and on the
AAVSO website.
Chapter 1 PREPARATIONS
What you should know
Though making variable star observations may
sound straightforward as outlined in this manual,
the process for the beginner can be very
challenging and seemingly impossible at times.
THIS IS NORMAL! We state this up front because
many have been initially discouraged by the
difficulty, believing that things will not get better.
We reassure you that things do get better. It just
takes a little practice.
Expanding your program
As you gain experience and begin to feel
comfortable with your variable star work, you will
probably wish to expand the list of stars you are
observing. You may find it interesting to include
different types of variable stars in your program.
Unless the stars that you are observing are
circumpolar, you will also need to add more stars
to your program as the seasons progress and the
stars that you were observing are no longer above
your horizon at night. Lists of variable stars in the
AAVSO program and additional charts may be
obtained from AAVSO Headquarters or
downloaded from the AAVSO website.
Some members of Astronomishe Jugenclub, organized
by AAVSO observer Peter Reinhard of Austria
2
Some factors to consider as you set up, then
later expand, your observing program include:
Geographical location The scale of your
observing program will be influenced by the
location and terrain of your observing site as
well as how often you can use it.
Sky conditions The more clear nights you have
in your location, the more advisable it is to go
after stars that require nightly observations, such
as the cataclysmic variables and R Coronae
Borealis stars (more information about types of
variable stars can be found in Chapter 3 of this
manual). If a site has clear weather less than
20% of the time, it is recommended that you
observe slowly varying, long period variables,
since, for these stars, even one observation per
month is meaningful.
Light pollution The amount of light pollution at
your observing site greatly affects your selection
of stars to observe. An observer living in a city
is advised to concentrate on observing bright
stars, while observers with dark skies should
be challenged to go after stars as faint as their
instruments will allow. Some of the most
productive AAVSO observers work under very
light-polluted conditions!
With more experience
Experienced observers may wish to make
observations that can only be made during the
morning or evening twilight. Observations made
at these times are particularly valuable. This is
because the difficulty of observing during twilight
leads to a scarcity of observations as a star is
entering or emerging from the seasonal gap.
The seasonal gap is the period of up to several
months when the star is above the horizon only
during daylight hours. Observations made
between midnight and dawn for stars in the
eastern sky also have special value because
most observers are active before midnight,
when these stars have not yet risen.
Observing Site Conditions
A remote, dark-sky observing site is by no
means required for the visual observation of
variable stars. The old axiom that the number
of observations accrued per month is inversely
proportional to the distance traveled from your
home to your observing site is still valid. If you
can do your observing from your own backyard
several nights a week, perhaps under
moderately light-polluted skies, it may actually
prove more productive and enjoyable than
once a month travelling two hours each way
to a remote site with dark skies but obtaining
only a handful of estimates. Being successful
at variable star observing is more a matter of
adapting your observing program to your
location and instrumentation than any other
factor. It is inspiring to note that quite a number
of the AAVSOs leading observers currently
reside in, and observe from, urban areas.
Mary Glennon with her 7x50 binoculars
Haldun Menali observing in the city
3
Equipment Needed
Optical Equipment Successful variable star
observing requires interest, perseverance, and
the proper optical tools. A good pair of binoculars
is sufficient for bright stars, while for fainter stars
you need a telescope which can be either
portable or permanently mounted. Much
information on optical equipment is available
from magazines and on the web (see Appendix
3 for more resource information).
Bi nocul ars For begi nni ng and
experienced observers alike, binoculars are an
excellent variable star observing tool. They are
portable, easy to use, and provide a relatively
large field of view, making it easier to locate the
variable star field. Much can be done with a pair
of good quality binoculars. Handheld 7x50s or
10x50s are the most generally useful for
variable star observing. Higher magnification
binoculars also work fine, but will usually require
a mount.
Tel escope There i s no i deal
telescope for variable star observing; each has
its own special advantage. Variable star
observers can use just about every make,
model, and type of telescope available. Your
own telescope is the best scope! The most
popular type of telescope among variable star
observers is the short focus (f/4f/8) Newtonian
reflector with an aperture of 6 inches (15cm) or
more. They are usually far less expensive than
other designs and relatively easy to build. In
recent years, the Schmidt-Cassegrain and
Maksutov telescopes, with their compact design,
have gained considerable popularity among new
and experienced observers alike.
Finder It is paramount that your
telescope be equipped with a good tool for
finding the general region of the sky in which
the variable is located. Standard finder scopes,
setting circles (regular or digital), or 1X aiming
devices, can all be used in variable star
observing. Preference varies among observers,
so it is suggested that if you are already utilizing
one of these systems, you should stick with it,
at least in the short term.
Eyepieces A low-power, wide-field,
eyepiece is an important aid in locating variable
stars, and it allows the observer to include as
many of the comparison stars in the field as
possible. High magnification is not necessary
until you are observing faint stars (nearer to the
limit of your telescope) or crowded fields. The
exact size and power of eyepieces you will need
depends on the size and type of telescope you
use. It is recommended that you have 2 or 3
eyepieces. One of these should be of low power
(20X70X) for use in finding and making
observations of the brighter variables. Other
eyepieces should be of higher power for viewing
fai nter stars. Hi gher qual i ty eyepi eces
(especially at higher power) afford better star
images, which translate into fainter star visibility.
A good quality, achromatic, two- or three-power
Barlow lens may also be a valuable aid. (See
next page for more about eyepieces.)
Mount Either equatorial or alt-azimuth
mounts can be used successfully in variable star
observing. Stability is important to prevent jittery
star images, and smooth movements help in
star-hopping. A drive system can be helpful
when high magnification is used, but many
observers make do without one.
Nicholas Oliva with Newtonian reflector
4
light enters the eye that the brightness of a star that is
initially not very bright, may not be able to be judged at all.
If you know the focal length (FL) of your eyepiece and
the focal ratio (FR) of your telescope, the exit pupil
(EP) can be estimated from the following relationship:
EP = FL/FR
Thus, an eyepiece with a focal length of 25mm, fitted
to a telescope with a focal ratio of 10, has an exit pupil
equal to 2.5mm. Note that if you do not know the FR,
it can be determined by dividing the focal length of the
telescope (in mm.) by the aperture (in mm.)
Contrast Enhancement via MagnificationAs the
magnifying power of an eyepiece increases, the
amount of light reaching the eye decreases. However,
a modest increase in magnification is often found to
enhance the contrast between stars and the
surrounding sky, and this effect can sometimes be
exploited when making estimates of relative
magnitude in moderately light polluted skies. It is
frequently found, for example, that 10x50mm
binoculars are preferable to 7x50mm binoculars in
less than totally dark skies. The same holds true for a
telescope, and you may find that an increase from a
low power to a medium power eyepiece, say, from
20x to 40x, will provide a more favorable viewing
situation under marginal conditions.
Parfocal EyepiecesEyepieces that are of similar
design and produced by the same manufacturer can
often be interchanged without the need to refocus,
making them very convenient to use. It is sometimes
possible to create a parfocal set from a mixed set by
slipping O-rings or spacers cut from plastic tubing over
the eyepiece barrels.
Eyepiece DesignsEyepieces come in a wide variety
of designs. The older varieties contain as few as two
lenses, while newer ones contain as many as eight.
Some perform best at low to intermediate powers,
while others cover the full range from low to high.
Choosing the right ones depends upon what you
plan to observe, your needs in terms of magnification,
resolution, field of view, and how much money you
are willing to spend. Rough comparisons of common
types with respect to eye relief, apparent field, and
cost are presented below.
Eye Relief Apparent Cost
re: Kellner Field (deg) re: Kellner
Kellner (short) 36-45 (low)
Orthoscopic moderate 40-50 moderate
Plossl moderate 48-52 moderate
Erfle long 60-70 moderate
Ultrawide long 52-85 very high
A Few Words on Eyepieces by Carl Feehrer, AAVSO Member/Observer
A basic understanding of certain eyepiece parameters
helps significantly in choosing chart scales, setting
expectations concerning what you will see, and
deriving maximum benefit from your equipment. Brief
discussions of the more important of these are
presented below.
Eye ReliefThis refers to the distance that necessarily
exists between the eye and the eyepiece at the point
where the whole field is visible and in focus. In general,
the higher the magnification of the eyepiece, the
smaller the exit hole through which you look will need
to be, and the closer you will have to place your eye
to the lens. The need to get very close with some
eyepiece designs/magnifications can present a
problem for eyeglass wearers in particular, and it may
result in discomfort for observers whose eyelashes
actually must touch the eyepiece in order to achieve
a satisfactory view. Long eye relief exists when you
are able to place your eye several (e.g. 820)
millimeters from the eyepiece and still maintain an in-
focus, full field view. Fortunately, there are several
eyepiece designs that aid in meeting this goal.
Field of ViewThere are actually two concepts here:
True Field (TF), and Apparent Field (AF). TF refers to
the angular subtence of sky that you are able to see
through your instrument, and it depends upon the
amount of magnification provided by the eyepiece.
The angle seen by the unaided (i.e.1x power) eye is
an example of True Field. AF refers to the angular
subtense of the eyepiece alone, and it is dependent
upon the diameter of the eyepiece lenses. The fixed
frame of a TV monitor provides an example of
Apparent Field.
A common empirical method for estimating TF that is
based on the time taken for a star to transit the field is
given in the section on Additional Observing Tips
(page 11). If you already know the Apparent Field of
View (AFOV) and Magnification (M) of your eyepiece,
it can also be estimated from the following relationship:
TF = AF/M
Thus, a 40-power eyepiece with an AF of 50 deg. will
display a true angular subtense of sky equal to 1.25
deg., which is approximately equal to 2.5 times the
diameter of the full moon.
Exit PupilThe exit pupil is the name given to the
hole through which you look. The response of the
eye itself sets practical limits to the size of the exit
pupil: If it is greater than about 7mm in diameter, some
of the transmitted light is wasted because that value
is approximately the maximum diameter of the
diaphragm of the fully dark-adapted eye of a young,
healthy person; if it is less than about 2mm, so little
5
Atlas A star atlas or small scale sky chart will
help greatly with learning the constellations and
finding the general region of the sky in which a
variable can be found. The AAVSO Variable Star
Atlas is specially designed for locating variable
stars. In addition, there are several other atlases
to choose from, based on your own needs and
preferences. Many of these are listed in Appendix
3 under Reading Materials.
AAVSO Star Charts Once you find the region
of the sky in which the variable is located, you will
need AAVSO Star Charts of various scales to
identify the variable and make an estimate of its
brightness. The next two pages of this manual
contain a detailed description of a typical AAVSO
Variable Star Chart along with a sample of one. A
set of charts recommended for use by beginner
variable star observers is included with the new
member package or available upon request.
Clock or Watch Your timepiece should be
readable in near darkness and accurate to within
a few minutes for most kinds of stars. Accuracy to
within seconds is needed for observations of
special types of stars such as eclipsing binaries,
flare stars, or RR Lyrae stars. Radio time signals
available in North America include:
CHU Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
3.330, 7.335, 14.670 MHZ
WWV Fort Collins, CO, USA
2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20 MHZ
Record-Keeping System An efficient record-
keeping system is a necessity, and observers have
devised many different kinds. Some enter all the
observations for the night in a logbook and later
copy them on to data sheets for individual stars.
Others keep a record sheet for each star at the
telescope. Still others enter their observations
directly into their computers. No matter what
system is adopted, one must not be influenced by
previous estimates and should carefully check all
records for accuracy.
Observing Stand Most observers use a desk
or table to hold charts, record sheets, and other
equipment. Many have also constructed a shelter
or cover over it to keep things from blowing away
in the wind and free of dew. A shielded red light,
which does not effect night-vision, is useful for
illuminating the charts. Over the years, AAVSO
observers have devised many creative solutions
to this problem as seen in the photos at right.
Gary Walkers observatory desk
Ed Halbachs observing cart
Jack Nordbys rotating workstation
6
arc per millimeter. Many older style charts may
give this information in a different format or be
incomplete. The stars on an AAVSO chart are
shown as black dots on a white background.
The si zes of the dotsparti cul arl y for
comparison starsindicate relative brightness.
Through a telescope, of course, the stars will
appear as points.
Except on the a and b charts, the position of
the variable is generally in the center of the field
and is indicated by this symbol:
On some of the older charts, the variable is
indicated by a simple open circle, sometimes
with a dot in the middle. In most cases, when
more than one variable in the AAVSO program
occurs on the chart, an additional heading is
provided for each.
Surrounding the variable star(s) are stars of
known constant magnitude called comparison
stars. These are used to estimate the brightness
of a variable. The comparison stars are
recognizable by the fact that they have
magnitudes associated with them. These
magnitudes are determined to the nearest tenth
of a magnitude, the decimal point being omitted
to avoid possible confusion with star disks. For
example, 8.6 would appear on the chart as
86. The numbers are placed to the right of
the disk spot of the star wherever convenient,
otherwise a short line connects disk and
number.
Comparison star sequences (magnitudes) have
been determined visually and photovisually at
Harvard and elsewhere, except for stars
measured by photoel ectri c photometry
(underlined) and CCD (overlined).
In addition to the standard AAVSO charts, there
are available: charts which have been reversed
west to east for use with telescopes with an
odd number of reflections (such as Schmidt-
Cassagrains or refractors with diagonal mirrors);
preliminary charts (subject to revision); 4" x 5"
finder charts which show a large area of the
sky; and special purpose charts such as those
used for observing eclipsing binary or RR Lyrae
stars or by observers with photoelectric
photometry or CCD equipment.
AAVSO Variable Star Charts
Locating a variable star is a learned skill. To aid
the observer, finding charts have been prepared
wi th wel l -determi ned, vi sual -magni tude
sequences of comparison stars. We urge our
observers to use these charts in order to avoid
the conflict that can arise when magnitudes for
the same comparison star are derived from
different sets of charts. This could result in two
different values of variation being recorded for
the same star on the same night.
The standard AAVSO charts are 8-1/2 x 11
inches in size, and range in scale from 5
arcminutes per millimeter (a charts) to 2.5
arcseconds (g charts), a 120-times difference.
The scales needed for your observing program
will depend on the observing equipment you are
using. Table 1.1 below summarizes this
information:
Figure 1.1 on the facing page show a typical
AAVSO star chart with its features labeled. The
heading of each chart contains quite a bit of
information including the designation of the
variable (see pages 17-18 for a description of
this term), a letter identifying the scale of the
chart, and the name of the star. Below the
variables designation are: the range of variation
in magnitude; period of variation; class of
variable; and spectral type of the star. The
position of the variable for the epochs 1900 (or
sometimes for 1950) and 2000 are listed below
the stars name. The chart itself corresponds
to the earlier of the two epochs given (with the
exception of some b charts). The coordinates
for right ascension are in hours, minutes, and
seconds, and those for declination are in
degrees, minutes, and tenths of minutes. The
latest revision date for the chart is shown in the
upper right hand corner of the chart along with
the scale of the chart in seconds or minutes of
arc / mm area good for
a 5 minutes 15 degrees binoculars / finder
ab 2.5 minutes 7.5 degrees binoculars / finder
b 1 minute 3 degrees small telescope
c 40 seconds 2 degrees 34 telescope
d 20 seconds 1 degree 4 telescope
e 10 seconds 30 minutes large telescope
f 5 seconds 15 minutes large telescope
g 2.5 seconds 7.5 minutes large telescope
Table 1.1 - Chart Scales
7




Comparison
stars with
magnitudes
(note no
decimal
points)

Designation
Scale
(letter)
Spectral
Classification
Period
Type
Variable star
Epoch Declination (DEC)
Chart source information
Latest
revision
date
Scale
Star name
Magnitude range
West
Right Ascension (RA)
Figure 1.1 Sample AAVSO star chart
All AAVSO charts can be obtained on paper by postal mail, and most are available on-line
through the AAVSO website ([Link] and ftp site ([Link]
8
By the mid-1890s, Harvard College Observatory
Director, Edward C. Pickering saw that the key to
involving many more amateurs in variable star
observi ngwhi l e ensuri ng the qual i ty and
consistency of measurementswould be to provide
standard sequences of comparison stars that have
assigned magnitudes. For the novice observer, this
would make variable star measurement a much
si mpl er acti vi ty than havi ng to fol l ow the
cumbersome step method (invented by William
Herschel and promoted and refined by Argelnder),
and it would do away with the laborious reductions
needed to derive a light curve.
The first variable star charts...
Edward C. Pickering
William Tyler Olcott
One of the early variable star charts provided by
E. C. Pickering, which W.T. Olcott used in his 1911
Popular Astronomy article, Variable Star Work for
the Amateur with Small Telescopes.
Pickering (and later AAVSO Co-founder William
Tyler Olcott) began providing variable star
observers with sets of charts which had the variable
star and its comparison stars marked directly on
them. The charts were traced from the German star
atlas, the Bonner Durchmusterung, and the
comparison stars were marked with letter-names
(a, b, etc.).
In 1906, Pickering made an important change to
his chart format, which went hand-in-hand with the
way that variable star estimates were to be made.
He now entered the photovisual magnitudes of a
sequence of comparison stars directly onto
photographi cal l y reproduced charts. The
observation is made by comparing the variable
directly with a brighter and a fainter comparison
star, and matching or interpolating the variables
magnitude from the given comparison star values.
It is a method commonly in use today.
9
Step-by-Step Instructions
1. Find the field - Using an atlas or sky chart,
look up and locate the field or region of the sky in
which the variable is located. This is where
knowing the constellations will be very helpful.
Take out your a or b scale chart and orient it
so that it matches what you see in the sky.
2a. Find the variable (using finder/1x) Look
at the a or b chart and pick out a bright key
star that appears near the variable. Now look up
and try to find this same star in the sky. If you
cannot see the key star with your unaided eye
(due to moonlight or other adverse conditions),
use a finder scope or a very low-power, wide field
eyepiece and point the telescope as closely as
possible to the position in the sky where the key
star should be. Remember that depending on the
equipment you are using, the orientation of the
stars that you see in your telescope will probably
be different than what you see when you look up
with the unaided eye. You will need to learn to
reconcile N, E, S, W, with your own particular
equipment. (See pages 11 and 12 for further
explanation.) Verify that you have spotted the
correct key star by identifying fainter telescopic
stars near it, as shown on the chart.
Now progress slowly (star-hop) in the direction
of the variable, identifying star configurations (also
called asterisms) as you go. Until you become
very familiar with the field, it will take many glances
from the chart, to the sky, then through the finder
scope, and back againuntil you reach the star
configuration in the immediate vicinity of the
variable. Take your time to ensure proper
identification. Sometimes it helps to draw lines on
the chart between the stars in each configuration.
2b. Find the variable (using setting circles)
If your telescope is equipped with fairly accurate
setting circles (regular or digital), this may be your
choice for finding variable star fields. Before
starting, ensure that your telescope is properly
aligned. The 2000 coordinates which appear at
the top of the chart should then be used to dial
in the variable. The inclusion of the 1900 coordinates
allow you to apply precession corrections as we move
away from the year 2000.
Remember, the variable may not be immediately
apparent. Even though it might be in the field of view,
you will still need to identify the stars in the immediate
vicinity of the variable for positive confirmation. Often,
you will find that it is helpful to scan around the field
to locate a bright key star or asterism which you can
then find on the chart. From there you can progress
(star-hop) to the variable.
3. Find the comparison stars When you are sure
that you have correctly identified the variable, you
are ready to proceed with making an estimate of its
brightness by comparing it with other stars of fixed,
known brightness. These comparison or comp
stars are generally located near the variable on the
chart. Find them through your telescope, being very
careful once again to ensure that you have identified
them correctly.
4. Estimate brightness To estimate the magnitude
of a variable star, determine which comparison
(comp) star or stars are closest in brightness to the
variable. Unless the variable is exactly the same
brightness as one of the comp stars, you will have to
interpolate between a star that is brighter and a star
that is fainter than the variable itself. The interpolation
exercise in Figure 2.1 (pg. 10) will help to illustrate
this procedure.
5. Record your observations The following
information should be recorded in your logbook as
soon as possible after each observation:
name and designation of the variable (see pages
17 and 18 for more on this subject)
date and time of your observation
magnitude estimate for the variable
magnitudes of the comparison stars used for
the estimate
identification of chart and scale used
notes on any conditions which might effect seeing
(i.e. clouds, haze, moonlight, high wind, etc.)
6. Prepare your report All variable star
observations made in one month should be collected,
formatted, and submitted to the AAVSO as soon as
possible after the next month begins, if not before.
There is a very specific format for reporting your
observations and there are several ways to submit
your reports to AAVSO Headquarters. Guidelines
for reporting your observations will be covered in
detail in Chapter 6 of this manual.
Chapter 2 MAKING OBSERVATIONS
10
These are some examples showing how to interpolate between comparison stars to deter-
mine the magnitude of the variable. Remember that in the real world, the stars all appear as
points of light, not as disks of different sizes. The stars used for the interpolation in each
example below are marked with arrows.
For more on interpolation, try using the Telescope Simulatora dynamic presentation on
how to make variable star magnitude estimateswhich can be accessed through the AAVSO
website or [Link]
Magnitude 6.5
Magnitude 7.1
Magnitude 8.9
Figure 2.1 Interpolation Exercises
Magnitude 5.2
Magnitude 6.1
Magnitude < 9.0
(fainter-than 9.0)
11
Field of vie Field of vie Field of vie Field of vie Field of view ww ww
New observers shoul d ascertai n the
approximate size of the field of view of their
telescopes with the different eyepieces. (See
also page 4.) Point the telescope at a region
not far from the celestial equator and without
moving the instrument, allow a bright star to trail
through the field. The star will move at a rate of
one degree in four minutes, near the equator.
For example, if two minutes are required for the
star to pass across the center of the field, from
edge to edge, the diameter of the field is one-
half of one degree.
Once the instruments field is determined, a
circle with the proper diameter may be drawn
on the chart, with the variable at the center, as
an aid in identifying a new field. Or, it may be
useful to represent the field on the chart by using
a piece of cardboard with the proper-size hole
in it, or by making a wire ring to lay over the
chart, etc.
Orientation of charts
In order to use the charts successfully, you must
learn how to orient them properly to the sky. On
AAVSO chart scales a, aa, and ab, north
is up and east is to the left. These charts are
appropriate for use with the unaided eye or with
binoculars.
For chart scales b and larger, south is up and
west is to the left. These charts are appropriate
for use with reflecting telescopes where there
is an even number of reflections, resulting in a
field that is seen upside-down. For refracting
and Schmidt-Cassegrain telescopes, a right-
angle prism (diagonal) is normally used,
resulting in an odd number of reflections. This
produces an image which is right-side up, but
east and west are flipped (i.e. a mirror image).
In this case, whenever possible, you would be
well advised to use AAVSO reversed charts on
which north is up and west is to the left. If you
are in need of a reversed chart and one does
not yet exist, it may be possible to reverse a
chart yourself by either flipping the chart over
and redrawing it through the back side, or using
computer imaging software to do it for you.
Additional Observing Tips
The drawing at right shows
how a group of stars appear
in binoculars, in a typical
Newtonian reflector with an
even number of reflections,
and in a typical refractor or
Cassagrain telescope with a
right angle prism (odd
number of reflections).
Below each instrument is
drawn a chart type
commonly used with that
instrument. The charts are
also oriented correctly.
Figure 2.2 Chart types
12
Regardless of what kind of chart you are using,
the position of the variable changes relative to
the horizon as the earth rotates, and the chart
must be held according to the following rules:
1. Face the direction in which the distance from
the variable to the horizon is smallest.
2. Hold the chart up over your head next to the
variable star.
Orientation of Charts
variable between
Polaris and zenith
variable between
Polaris and horizon
Facing East
Facing South
Facing North-note difference if variable is above or
below North Celestial Pole (Polaris). Charts shown are
b scale.
Facing North
Facing West
Facing South-note difference if variable is above or
below South Celestial Pole. Charts shown are b scale.
variable between
SCP and horizon
variable between
SCP and zenith
Facing West
Facing East
Southern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere
3. With regular b scale and deeper charts,
rotate the chart so that South is pointing toward
Polaris. (In the Southern Hemisphere, point
North toward the South Celestial Pole.) When
using an a scale chart or a reversed chart,
point North toward Polaris.
4. Bring the chart down to a comfortable
working position without changing its orientation.
13
Measuring the Brightness of Stars
Excerpted from the AAVSO Hands-On
Astrophysics Manual
The method we use today to compare the
apparent brightness of stars is rooted in
antiquity. Hipparchus, a Greek astronomer
who lived in the second century BC, is usually
credited with formulating a system to classify
the brightness of stars. He called the brightest
star in each constellation first magnitude.
Ptolemy, in 140 AD, refined Hipparchus
system and used a 1 to 6 scale to compare
star brightness, with 1 being the brightest and
6 being the faintest.
Astronomers in the mid-1800s quantified
these numbers and modified the old Greek
system. Measurements demonstrated that 1st
magnitude stars were 100 times brighter than
6th magnitude stars. It has also been
calculated that the human eye perceives a one
magnitude change as being 2 times brighter,
so a change in 5 magnitudes would seem to
be 2.5
5
(or approximately 100) times brighter.
Therefore, a difference of 5 magnitudes has
been defined as being equal to a factor of
exactly 100 in apparent brightness.
It follows that one magnitude is equal to
the 5th root of 100, or approximately 2.5;
therefore, the apparent brightness of two
objects can be compared by subtracting the
magnitude of the brighter object from the
magnitude of the fainter object, and raising 2.5
to the power equal to that difference. For
example, Venus and Sirius have a difference
in brightness of about 3 magnitudes. This
means that Venus appears 2.5
3
(or about 15)
times brighter to the human eye than Sirius.
In other words, it would take 15 stars with the
brightness of Sirius in one spot in the sky to
equal the brightness of Venus.
On this scale, some objects are so bright
that they have negative magnitudes, while the
most powerful telescopes (such as the Hubble
Space Telescope) can see objects down to
a magnitude of about +30.
Apparent magnitudes of selected objects:
Sun -26.7 Sirius -1.5
Full Moon -12.5 Vega 0.0
Venus -4.4 Polaris 2.5
The magnitude scale
The scale of magnitudes may seem confusing
at first, because the larger the number, the
fainter the star. The average limit of naked-eye
visibility is 6th magnitude. Stars like Antares,
Spica, and Pollux are 1st magnitude, and
Arcturus and Vega are 0 magnitude. The very
bright star, Canopus, is -1 (minus one), and the
brightest star in the sky, Sirius, is -1.5.
On AAVSO charts, the comparison stars are
designated with numbers which indicate their
magnitude to tenths. The decimal point is
omitted to avoid confusion with the dots which
represent stars. Thus 84 and 90 indicate two
stars whose magnitudes are 8.4 and 9.0,
respectively.
The magnitudes of the comparison stars used
on AAVSO charts have been determined
careful l y wi th speci al i nstruments (i ri s
photometers, photoelectric photometers, and
charge coupled devices) and are considered as
measuring rods in estimating the magnitude of
the variable. It is important for the observer to
keep a record of which comparison stars are
used when making an estimate of a variables
brightness.
Because the magnitude scale is actually
logarithmic, a star twice as faint as another
would not be represented by the magnitude
number simply doubling in value. (See the side-
bar at right, Measuring the Brightness of Stars,
for a more detailed explanation.) For this reason,
the observer must always be careful to use
comparison stars that are not too far apart in
brightnessnot more than 0.5 or 0.6 of a
magnitude apartwhen making estimates of
brightness.
Limiting magnitude
It is best to use only just enough optical aid to
enable the variable to be seen with ease. In
general, if the variable is brighter than 5th
magnitude, the unaided eye is best; if between
the 5th and 7th, the finder or a good pair of field
glasses is advised; and if below 7th magnitude,
high-power binoculars or a telescope of three
inches aperture or more, according to the
magnitude of the variable, should be used.
Estimates of brightness are easier to make and
more accurate when they are 2 to 4 magnitudes
above the limit of the instrument.
14
The table below serves as an approximate guide
to limiting magnitudes versus telescope/
instrument size. What you are actually able to
observe with your own equipment may be quite
different from this, due to varying seeing
conditions and quality of the telescope. You may
wish to create your own table of limiting
magnitudes by using a star atlas or chart with
magnitudes given for easy-to-find non-variable
stars.
When a faint companion star is found near a
variable, be sure that the two stars are not
confused with each other. If the variable is near
the limit of visibility and some doubt exists as to
positive identity, indicate this in your report.
The experienced observer does not spend time
on variables below his/her telescope limit.
Identification of the variable
Remember that the variable may or may not be
visible with your telescope at the time you are
searching for it, depending on whether the star
is near maximum or minimum brightness, or
somewhere in between.
When you think that you have located the
variable, compare the region around it with the
chart very carefully. If there are any stars in the
field which do not seem to match, either in
brightness or location, then you may be looking
at the wrong star. Try again.
An eyepiece of higher power will be necessary
when the variable is faint or in a very crowded
field of stars. Also, it will probably be necessary
to use the d or e scale charts in order to
obtain positive identification of the variable.
When you are observing, relax. Dont waste time
on variables you cannot locate. If you cannot
find a variable star after a reasonable effort,
make a note and move on to your next variable.
After your observing session, reexamine the
atlas and charts and see if you can determine
why you could not find the variable. Next time
you are observing, try again!
Estima Estima Estima Estima Estimating the v ting the v ting the v ting the v ting the var ar ar ar aria ia ia ia iable ble ble ble bles br s br s br s br s brightness ightness ightness ightness ightness
Any optical instruments resolving pow er is
greatest at its center of [Link], when the
comparison star and the variable are widely
separated, they shoul d not be vi ewed
simultaneously but they should be brought
successively into the center of the field.
If the variable and the comparison star are close
together, they should be placed at equal
distance from the center, and the line between
the two stars should be as parallel as possible
to the connecting line between your eyes to
prevent what is known as position angle error.
Figure 2.3 Star Hopping
The chart below is being used to illustrate a typical
star hop from the bright key star, beta Cep, to the
variable star, T Cep. Note that the observers
telescopic field-of-view has been drawn in and that
a bright asterism is being used to help find the way
from beta to T Cep.

eye binoc 6 10 16
Avg. 3.2 6.0 10.5 12.0 13.0
C
i
t
y

Best 4.0 7.2 11.3 13.2 14.3
Avg. 4.8 8.0 12.0 13.5 14.5
S
e
m
i
-
d
a
r
k

Best 5.5 9.9 12.9 14.3 15.4
Avg. 6.2 10.6 12.5 14.7 15.6
V
e
r
y

d
a
r
k

Best 6.7 11.2 13.4 15.6 16.5
Table 2.1 Typical limiting magnitudes
15
If this is not the case, turn your head or the
erecting prism (if used). The position angle effect
can produce errors of up to 0.5 magnitude.
It must be stressed that all observing must be
done near the center of the instruments field.
Most telescopes do not have 100% illumination
over the field of all eyepieces, and there is
greater aberration of the image, the further it is
positioned toward the edge of the objective in
refractors or of the mirror in reflectors.
Use at least two comparison stars, and if
possible, more. If the interval between
comparison stars is very large, say 0.5 or
greater, use extreme care in estimating how the
interval between the brighter comparison star
and the variable compares with that between
the variable and the fainter comparison star.
Record exactly what you see, regardless of
seeming discrepancies in your observations.
You should go into each observing session with
a clear head; do not let your estimate be
prejudiced by your previous estimates or by
what you THINK the star should be doing.
If the variable is not seen because of extreme
faintness, haze, or moonlight, then note the
faintest comparison star visible in the region. If
that star should be 11.5, record your observation
of the variable as <11.5, which means that the
variable is invisible and must have been below,
or fainter, than, magnitude 11.5. The left-
pointing bracket is a symbol for fainter than.
When observing variables which have a
decidedly red color, it is recommended that the
estimate be made by the so-called quick
glance method rather than by prolonged
stares. Due to the Purkinje effect, red stars
tend to excite the retina of the eye when watched
for an extended period of time; accordingly, red
stars would appear to become unduly bright in
comparison to blue stars, thus producing an
erroneous i mpressi on of the rel ati ve
magnitudes.
Another techni que that i s strongl y
recommended for making magnitude estimates
of red stars, is called the out-of-focus method.
That is, the eyepiece must be drawn out of focus
so far that the stars become visible as colorless
disks. In this way a systematic error due to the
Purkinje effect is avoided. If the color of the
variable is visible even when the stars are out-
of-focus, you may need to use a smaller
telescope or an aperture mask.
For faint stars, you may wish to try making your
estimate by using averted vision. To do this,
keep the variable and the comparison stars near
the center of the field of view while concentrating
your gaze to one side, thus using your peripheral
vision. The reason this works is explained on
the next page.
Recor Recor Recor Recor Record k d k d k d k d keeping eeping eeping eeping eeping
A permanently bound book (such as a ledger
book) should be used for your observing
records. Always keep your original record books
intact. Any corrections to your records, or
reductions, should be entered with a different
color ink and dated. A second record book,
possibly loose-leaf, can be used to keep on hand
records of monthly totals, copies of reports
submitted, alert notices, and other information.
Computer records should be saved and
archived for future reference.
Your observing notes should also include such
distractions as people present, lights, noises,
or anything else that might have had an effect
on your concentration.
If for any reason your magnitude estimate is
doubtful, state this in your record, giving the
reasons for your doubt.
It is essential that records be kept in such a
manner that the observer will not be prejudiced
by a knowledge of what magnitude the variable
had when it was previously observed. The
observer must resolve to make all estimates
independent of each other without reference to
previous observations.
In the heading of each page of your record book,
note the Julian day (explained in Chapter 4) and
the day of the week, as well as the year, month,
and day of observation. It is well to use the
double-day notation to avoid confusion in
observations made after midnight; e.g., JD
2451821, [Link]., October 34, 2000. In
case a mistake is made in one, the other tends
to indicate which is correct.
If more than one observing instrument is
available, note which one is used for each
observation.
16
Starlight in your eyes - from the AAVSO Hands-On Astrophysics Manual
The human eye resembles a camera. The eye is
equipped with a built-in cleaning and lubricating system,
an exposure meter, an automatic field finder, and a
continuous supply of film. Light from an object enters the
cornea, a transparent covering over the surface of the
eye, and passes through a transparent lens held in place
by ciliary muscles. An iris in front of the lens opens or
closes like the shutter on a camera to regulate the amount
of light entering the eye by involuntarily shrinking or dilating
the pupil. The iris gradually constricts with age; children
and young adults have pupils that can open to 7 or 8
mm in diameter or larger, but by the age of 50 it is not
unusual for the maximum pupil size to shrink to 5 mm,
greatly reducing the amount of light gathering capability
of the eye. The cornea and lens together, act as a lens
of variable focal length that focuses light from an object
to form a real image on the back surface of the eye,
called the retina. Because the pupil size shrinks with age,
the retina of a 60-year-old person receives about one
third as much light as does that of someone whos 30.
The retina acts like the film of a
camera. It contains about 130 million
light sensitive cells called cones and
rods. Light absorbed by these cells
initiates photochemical reactions
that cause electrical impulses in
nerves attached to the cones and
rods. The signals from individual
cones and rods are combined in a
complicated network of nerve cells
and transferred from the eye to the
brain via the optic nerve. What we
see depends on which cones and
rods are excited by absorbing light
and on the way in which the electrical signals from different
cones and rods are combined and interpreted by the
brain. Our eyes do a lot of thinking about what
information gets sent and what gets discarded.
The cones are concentrated in one part of the retina
called the fovea. The fovea is about 0.3 mm in diameter
and contains 10,000 cones and no rods. Each cone in
this region has a separate nerve fiber that leads to the
brain along the optic nerve. Because of the large number
of nerves coming from this small area, the fovea is the
best part of the retina for resolving the fine details of a
bright object. Besides providing a region of high visual
acuity, the cones in the fovea and in other parts of the
retina are specialized for detecting different colors of light.
The ability to see the colors of stars is greatly reduced
because the intensity of the colors is not great enough to
stimulate the cones. Another reason is that the
transparency of the lens decreases with age due to
increasing opacity. Babies have very transparent lenses
that pass wavelengths of light down to 3500 angstroms
in the deep violet.
The concentration of cones decreases outside the fovea.
In these peripheral regions, the rods predominate. Their
density in the retina is about the same as that of the cones
in the fovea region. However, the light signals from
perhaps 100 adjacent rods are brought together into a
single nerve cell that leads to the brain. This combining
of the rod signals reduces our ability to see the fine details
of an object but helps us see dimly lit objects since many
small signals are combined to produce a larger signal.
This is why it is easier to estimate the magnitude of a dim
variable star by not looking directly at the star, but to one
side of the star.
A normal eye can focus on objects located anywhere
from about 3 inches to infinity. This ability to focus on
objects at different distances is called accommodation.
Unlike the camera, which uses a fixed focal length lens
and a variable image distance to
accommodate different object
distances, the eye has a fixed image
distance of ~2.1 cm (the distance from
the cornea and lens to the retina) and
a variable focal length lens system.
When the eye looks at distant objects,
the ciliary muscle attached to the lens
of the eye relaxes, and the lens
becomes less curved. When less
curved, the focal length increases and
an image is formed at the retina. If the
lens remains flattened and the object
moves closer to the lens, the image
will then move back behind the retina,
causing a blurred pattern of light on the retina. To avoid
this, the ciliary muscles contract and cause an increase
in the curvature of the lens, reducing its focal length. With
reduced focal length, the image moves forward and again
forms a sharp, focused image on the retina. If your eyes
become tired after reading for many hours, it is because
the ciliary muscles have been tensed to keep the lenses
of your eyes curved.
The far point of the eye is the greatest distance to an
object on which the relaxed eye can focus. The near
point of the eye is the closest distance of an object on
which the tensed eye can focus. For the normal eye, the
far point is effectively infinity (we can focus on the moon
and distant stars) and the near point is about 3 inches.
This variable zoom lens changes with age and the
minimum focus distance grows until it is difficult to focus
on objects even 16 inches away, making charts and
instruments more difficult to read. The aging eye gradually
alters the way we perceive the universe.
17
The Naming of Variable Stars
The name of a variable star generally consists
of one or two capital letters or a Greek letter,
fol l owed by a three l etter constel l ati on
abbreviation. There are also variables with
names such as V746 Oph and V1668 Cyg.
These are stars in constellations for which all of
the letter combinations have been exhausted.
(i.e. V746 Oph is the 746th variable to be
discovered in Ophiuchus.) See the panel at right
for a more detailed explanation of variable star
names.
examples: SS Cyg
Z Cam
alpha Ori
V2134 Sgr
Table 3.1 (page 19) lists all of the official
constellation name abbreviations.
There are also some special kinds of star
names. For instance, sometimes stars are given
temporary names until such time as the editors
of the General Catalogue of Variable Stars
assign the star a permanent name. An example
of this would be N Cyg 1998a nova in the
constellation of Cygnus which was discovered
in 1998. Another case is of a star that is
suspected but not confirmed to be variable.
These stars are given names such as NSV 251
or CSV 3335. The first part of this name
indicates the catalogue in which the star is
published, while the second part is the catalogue
entry number for that star.
Variable Star Designations
In addition to its proper name, a variable star is
also referred to by its Harvard Designation. This
designation is simply an indication of a stars
position coordinates, given in hours and minutes
of right ascension (R.A.) plus or minus the
degrees of declination (Dec.) of the star for
epoch 1900. See sidebar on the next page for
more i nformati on on how the Harvard
Designation is determined.
examples: 2138+43 1405-12A
0214-03 1151+58
Chapter 3 ABOUT VARIABLE STARS
Note that in one example given, the designation
is followed by the letter A. This is because
there is another variable in the proximity, with
the designation 1405-12B which was discovered
later.
Variable Star Naming Conventions
Variable star names are determined by a
committee appointed by the International
Astronomical Union (I.A.U.). The assignments
are made in the order in which the variable
stars were discovered in a constellation. If
one of the stars that has a Greek letter
name is found to be variable, the star will
still be referred to by that name. Otherwise,
the first variable in a constellation would be
given the letter R, the next S, and so on to
the letter Z. The next star is named RR,
then RS, and so on to RZ; SS to SZ, and
so on to ZZ. Then, the naming starts over
at the beginning of the alphabet: AA, AB,
and continuing on to QZ. This system (the
letter J is omitted) can accommodate 334
names. There are so many variables in
some constellations in the Milky Way,
however, that additional nomenclature is
necessary. After QZ, variables are named
V335, V336, and so on. The l etters
representing stars are then combined with
the genitive Latin form of the constellation
name as given in Table 3.1. For all but the
most formal usage, and for reports you
submit to the AAVSO, the three letter
abbreviations should be used.
This system of nomenclature was initiated
in the mid-1800s by Friedrich Argelnder.
He started with an uppercase R for two
reasons: the lowercase letters and the first
part of the alphabet had already been
allocated for other objects, leaving capitals
towards the end of the alphabet mostly
unused. Argelnder also believed that
stellar variability was a rare phenomenon
and that no more than 9 variables would
be discovered in any constellation (which is
certainly not the case!).
18
The Harvard Designation of Variable Stars by Margaret W. Mayall
from the Journal of the AAVSO, Volume 5, Number 1
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Harvard College Observatory was the center
of most variable star work. Director Edward C. Pickering encouraged both
photographic and visual observations. Several catalogues of variable stars were
published by the Observatory, and the number of known variables grew so
large that astronomers felt the need for a designation that would give a better
clue to location in the sky, rather than just a list by constellations. The result was
the Harvard Designation, described in the Harvard Observatory Annals, vol. 48,
p. 93, 1903.
Many suggestions were considered, and it was finally decided to use six numbers
to indicate Right Ascension and Declination, epoch 1900. This method is not
intended to give an accurate position. It is, as Websters Dictionary says, an
indication. There has been some confusion concerning the method of
determining the designation.
Suppose the position of a variable is given by Right Ascension in hours, minutes,
and seconds of time and by Declination in degrees, minutes and tenths of arc,
epoch 1900. The first step in determining the Harvard designation is to reduce
the Right Ascension to hours, minutes, and tenths, and the Declination to degrees
and whole minutes of arc. Then drop the tenths of Right Ascension and the
minutes of Declination. The remaining six figures make up the Harvard
Designation.
For southern variables, a minus sign is inserted before the degrees of Declination,
or the degrees may be underscored or italicized.
Ambiguous cases are covered by a special rule. If, for example, the Right
Ascension ends with 21 seconds, dividing by 60, to get tenths of minutes will
give 0.35. In such cases, adopt the nearest even number, 0.4 in this case. As
further examples, 51 seconds would give 8 tenths, and 57 seconds would give
0 tenths of the next higher minute. In the reduction of Declination, the critical
case comes at 59 minutes. If the tenths are 5 or more, change the last two
figures of the Designation to the next higher degree.
EXAMPLES
Coordinates (1900) Reduced Designation
RR And 00
h
45
m
57
s
+ 3350'.0 00
h
46.
m
0 + 3350' 004633
SU And 23 59 28 + 42 59.7 23 59.5 + 43 00 235943
TW Aqr 20 58 55 - 02 26.5 20 58.9 - 02 26 2058-02 or 205802
U Aur 05 35 38 + 31 59.4 05 35.6 + 31 59 053531
An easy way to remember the rule is that if the Right Ascension is 57 seconds
or more, the minutes would be increased by one; if less, the minutes would not
change. In Declination, if the minutes are 59.'5 or more, the Declination would
increase 1, if less, the Declination remains the same.
19
Table 3.1 Constellation Names and Abbreviations
The list below shows the I.A.U. conventions for constellation names. Given for each constellation
is the Latin name, nominative and genitive, as well as the approved three-letter abbreviation.
Nominative Genitive Abbreviation
Andromeda Andromedae And
Antlia Antliae Ant
Apus Apodis Aps
Aquarius Aquarii Aqr
Aquila Aquilae Aql
Ara Arae Ara
Aries Arietis Ari
Auriga Aurigae Aur
Bootes Bootis Boo
Caelum Caeli Cae
Camelopardalis Camelopardalis Cam
Cancer Cancri Cnc
Canes Venatici Canum VenaticorumCVn
Canis Major Canis Majoris CMa
Canis Minor Canis Minoris CMi
Capricornus Capricorni Cap
Carina Carinae Car
Cassiopeia Cassiopeiae Cas
Centaurus Centauri Cen
Cepheus Cephei Cep
Cetus Ceti Cet
Chamaeleon Chamaeleontis Cha
Circinus Circini Cir
Columba Columbae Col
Coma Berenices Comae Berenices Com
Corona Austrina Coronae Austrinae CrA
Corona Borealis Coronae Borealis CrB
Corvus Corvi Crv
Crater Crateris Crt
Crux Crucis Cru
Cygnus Cygni Cyg
Delphinus Delphini Del
Dorado Doradus Dor
Draco Draconis Dra
Equuleus Equulei Equ
Eridanus Eridani Eri
Fornax Fornacis For
Gemini Geminorum Gem
Grus Gruis Gru
Hercules Herculis Her
Horologium Horologii Hor
Hydra Hydrae Hya
Hydrus Hydri Hyi
Indus Indi Ind
Nominative Genitive Abbreviation
Lacerta Lacertae Lac
Leo Leonis Leo
Leo Minor Leonis Minoris LMi
Lepus Leporis Lep
Libra Librae Lib
Lupus Lupi Lup
Lynx Lyncis Lyn
Lyra Lyrae Lyr
Mensa Mensae Men
Microscopium Microscopii Mic
Monoceros Monocerotis Mon
Musca Muscae Mus
Norma Normae Nor
Octans Octantis Oct
Ophiuchus Ophiuchi Oph
Orion Orionis Ori
Pavo Pavonis Pav
Pegasus Pegasi Peg
Perseus Persei Per
Phoenix Phoenicis Phe
Pictor Pictoris Pic
Pisces Piscium Psc
Piscis Austrinus Piscis Austrini PsA
Puppis Puppis Pup
Pyxis Pyxidis Pyx
Reticulum Reticuli Ret
Sagitta Sagittae Sge
Sagittarius Sagittarii Sgr
Scorpius Scorpii Sco
Sculptor Sculptoris Scl
Scutum Scuti Sct
Serpens Serpentis Ser
Sextans Sextantis Sex
Taurus Tauri Tau
Telescopium Telescopii Tel
Triangulum Trianguli Tri
TriangulumAustraleTrianguli Australis TrA
Tucana Tucanae Tuc
Ursa Major Ursae Majoris UMa
Ursa Minor Ursae Minoris UMi
Vela Velorum Vel
Virgo Virginis Vir
Volans Volantis Vol
Vulpecula Vulpeculae Vul
20
Types of Variable Stars
There are two kinds of variable stars: intrinsic,
in which variation is due to physical changes in
the star or stellar system, and extrinsic, in which
variability is due to the eclipse of one star by
another or the effect of stellar rotation. Variable
stars are frequently divided into four main
cl asses: the i ntri nsi c pulsating and
cataclysmic (eruptive) variables, and the
extrinsic eclipsing binary and rotating stars.
Generally, long period and semiregular pulsating
variables are recommended for beginners to
observe. These stars have a wide range of
variation. Also, they are sufficiently numerous
that many of them are found close to bright stars,
which is very helpful when it comes to locating
them.
A brief description of the major types in each
class is covered in this chapter. There is also
mention of the stars spectral type. If you are
interested in learning more about stellar spectra
and stellar evolution, you can find information
on these subjects in basic astronomy texts or in
some of the books mentioned in Appendix 3.
PULSATING VARIABLES
Pulsating variables are stars that show periodic
expansion and contraction of their surface
layers. Pulsations may be radial or non-radial.
A radially pulsating star remains spherical in
shape, while a star experiencing non-radial
pul sati ons may devi ate from a sphere
periodically. The following types of pulsating
variables may be distinguished by the pulsation
period, the mass and evolutionary status of the
star, and the characteristics of their pulsations.
What is a Light Curve?
Observations of variable stars are commonly
plotted on a graph called a light curve, as the
apparent brightness (magnitude) versus time,
usually in Julian Date (JD). The magnitude scale
is plotted so that brightness increases as you go
from bottom to top on the Y-axis and the JD
increases as you go from left to right on the X-
axis.
Information about the periodic behavior of stars,
the orbital period of eclipsing binaries, or the
degree of regularity (or irregularity) of stellar
eruptions, can be directly determined from the
light curve. More detailed analysis of the light
curve allows astronomers to calculate such
information as the masses or sizes of stars.
Several years or decades of observational data
can reveal the changing period of a star, which
could be a signal of a change in the structure of
the star.
Phase Diagrams
Phase diagrams (also known as folded light
curves) are a useful tool for studying the behavior
of periodic stars such as Cepheid variables and
eclipsing binaries. In a phase diagram, multiple
cycles of brightness variation are superimposed
on each other. Instead of plotting magnitude
versus JD as with a regular light curve, each
observation is plotted as a function of how far
into the cycle it is. For most variable stars, a cycle
starts at maximum brightness (phase=0), runs
through minimum and back to maximum again
(phase=1). With eclipsing binary stars, phase
zero occurs at mid-eclipse (minimum). An
example of a phase diagram is given on page 23
of this manual to show the characteristic light
curve of beta Persei.
Cepheids Cepheid variables pulsate with
periods from 1 to 70 days, with light variations
from 0.1 to 2 magnitudes. These massive stars
have high luminosity and are of F spectral class
at maximum, and G to K at minimum. The later
the spectral class of a Cepheid, the longer is its
period. Cepheids obey the period-luminosity
relationship. Cepheid variables may be good
candidates for student projects because they
are bright and have short periods.
Cepheid delta Cep
21
Novae These close binary systems consist of
an accreting white dwarf as a primary and a low-
mass main sequence star (a little cooler than the
Sun) as the secondary star. Explosive nuclear
burning of the surface of the white dwarf, from
accumulated material from the secondary, causes
the system to brighten 7 to 16 magnitudes in a
matter of 1 to several hundred days. After the
outburst, the star fades slowly to the initial
brightness over several years or decades. Near
maximum brightness, the spectrum is generally
similar to that of A or F giant stars.
RR Lyrae stars These are short-period (.05
to 1.2 days), pulsating, white giant stars, usually
of spectral class A. They are older and less
massive than Cepheids. The amplitude of
variation of RR Lyrae stars is generally from
0.3 to 2 magnitudes.
RV Tauri stars These are yellow supergiants
having a characteristic light variation with
alternating deep and shallow minima. Their
periods, defined as the interval between two deep
minima, range from 30 to 150 days. The light
variation may be as much as 3 magnitudes. Some
of these stars show long-term cyclic variations
from hundreds to thousands of days. Generally,
the spectral class ranges from G to K.
Long Period Variables Long Period Variables
(LPVs) are pulsating red giants or supergiants
with periods ranging from 30-1000 days. They
are usually of spectral type M, R, C or N. There
are two subclasses; Mira and Semiregular.
Mira These periodic red giant variables vary
with periods ranging from 80 to 1000 days and
vi sual l i ght vari ati ons of more than 2.5
magnitudes.
Semiregular These are giants and supergiants
showing appreciable periodicity accompanied
by intervals of semiregular or irregular light
variation. Their periods range from 30 to 1000
days, generally with amplitude variations of less
than 2.5 magnitudes.
Irregular variables
These stars, which include the majority of red
giants, are pulsating variables. As the name
implies, these stars show luminosity changes
with either no periodicity or with a very slight
periodicity.
CATACLYSMIC VARIABLES
Cataclysmic variables (also known as Eruptive
variables), as the name implies, are stars which
have occasional violent outbursts caused by
thermonuclear processes either in their surface
layers or deep within their interiors.
Supernovae These massive stars show
sudden, dramati c, and fi nal magni tude
increases of 20 magnitudes or more, as a result
of a catastrophic stellar explosion.
Mira (omicron Ceti)
Semiregular Z UMa
RV Tauri Type R Sct
SN 1987A
22
Recurrent Novae These objects are similar to
novae, but have two or more slightly smaller-
amplitude outbursts during their recorded
history.
Dwarf Novae These are close binary systems
made up of a red dwarfa little cooler than our
Sun, a white dwarf, and an accretion disk
surrounding the white dwarf. The brightening
by 2 to 6 magnitudes is due to instability in the
disk which forces the disk material to drain down
(accrete) onto the white dwarf. There are three
main subclasses of dwarf novae; U Gem,
Z Cam, and SU UMa stars.
Z Camelopardalis These stars are physically
similar to U Gem stars. They show cyclic
variations, interrupted by intervals of constant
brightness called standstills. These standstills
last the equivalent of several cycles, with the
star stuck at the brightness approximately one-
third of the way from maximum to minimum.
SU Ursae Majoris Also physically similar to U
Gem stars, these systems have two distinct
kinds of outbursts: one is faint, frequent, and
short, with a duration of 1 to 2 days; the other
(superoutburst) is bright, less frequent, and
long, with a duration of 10 to 20 days. During
superoutbursts, small periodic modulations
(superhumps) appear.
Recurrent Nova - RS Oph
U Gem
Z Cam
SU UMa
Nova V1500 Cyg
A huge, billowing pair of gas and dust clouds
are captured in this stunning NASA Hubble
Space Telescope image of the supermassive
star eta Carinae. This star was the site of a
giant outburst about 150 years ago, when it
became one of the brightest stars in the
southern sky. Though the star released as
much visible light as a supernova explosion,
it survived the outburst.
eta Car
U Geminorum After intervals of quiescence
at minimum light, they suddenly brighten.
Depending on the star, the eruptions occur at
intervals of 30 to 500 days and last generally 5
to 20 days.
23
Symbiotic stars These close binary systems
consist of a red giant and a hot blue star, both
embedded in nebulosity. They show semi-
periodic, nova-like outbursts, up to three
magnitudes in amplitude.
R Coronae Borealis These rare, luminous,
hydrogen-poor, carbon-rich, supergiants spend
most of their time at maximum light, occasionally
fading as much as nine magnitudes at irregular
intervals. They then slowly recover to their
maximum brightness after a few months to a
year. Members of this group have F to K and R
spectral types.
ECLIPSING BINARY STARS
These are binary systems of stars with an orbital
plane lying near the line-of-sight of the observer.
The components periodically eclipse one
another, causing a decrease in the apparent
brightness of the system as seen by the
observer. The period of the eclipse, which
coincides with the orbital period of the system,
can range from minutes to years.
Symbiotic Z And
Eclipsing Binary beta Per
R CrB
U Geminorum
Below are 20-second exposures of U Gem
before outburst and after the start of an
outburst. Images were taken by AAVSO
member Arne Henden, USRA/USNO, using
a CCD with a V filter on the U. S. Naval
Observatory 1.0-m telescope in Flagstaff,
AZ. Beneath the photos is the artist, Dana
Berrys, rendition of the U Gem system (note
the sun-like star to the right, the white dwarf,
and the accretion disk surrounding the white
dwarf).
ROTATING STARS
Rotating stars show small changes in light that
may be due to dark or bright spots, or patches
on their stellar surfaces (starspots). Rotating
stars are often binary systems.
24
Courage! Each step forward brings us nearer the goal, and if we can not reach it, we
can at least work so that posterity shall not reproach us for being idle or say that we
have not at least made an effort to smooth the way for them.
Friedrich Argelnder (1844)
the father of variable star astronomy
25
Variable star observations reported to the
AAVSO should always be expressed in terms
of the Julian Day (JD) and the decimal part of
the day gi ven i n Greenwich Mean
Astronomical Time (GMAT). This is the
standard unit of time used by astronomers
because it is convenient and unambiguous.
Here are the advantages:
- The astronomical day runs from noon to noon
so that you dont have to change calendar dates
in the middle of the night.
- A single number represents days, months,
years, hours, and minutes.
- Data on the same star from people observing
anywhere in the world can be compared easily
since they are all relative to the same time zone;
that of the prime meridian in Greenwich,
England.
What follows is a simple procedure for figuring
the JD and GMAT decimal of your observations.
Step-by-Step Instructions
1. Record the astronomical time and date of
your observation as counted from local
noon. Use the 24-hour clock instead of AM
or PM.
examples:
A. June 3 at 9:34 PM = June 3 at 9:34
B. June 4 at 4:16 AM = June 3 at 16:16
Note that the date of your observation does
not change after midnight because an
astronomical day runs from noon to noon
not midnight to midnight.
2. If your observation was made when Daylight
Savings Time (Summer Time) is in effect
where you live, subtract one hour to get
standard time.
A. June 3 at 9:34 DST = June 3 at 8:34
B. June 3 at 16:16 DST = June 3 at 15:16
3. Figure the Julian Date equivalent to the
astronomi cal cal endar date of your
observation as determined in Step 1 above
Chapter 4 COMPUTING THE JULIAN DAY & TIME
using the JD calendar shown in Figure 4.1.
A and B: June 3, 2000 = 2,451,699
4. Find the decimal equivalent of the hours and
minutes of your observation from Table 4.1
and add the result to the JD integer found
above. Notice that this table also takes into
account your longitude (and thus time zone)
so that the end result is expressed in GMAT.
Using the excerpt from Table 4.1 below, you
can see that if you observed from the 15E
time zone, the GMAT decimal equivalent
of 8:34 is .3. For the observation made at
15:16, it would be .6.
Now add the decimal to the JD integer
determined in Step 3 to arrive at the final
result of:
A. JD = 2451699.3
B. JD = 2451699.6
On the following page are several examples of
conversion from local time to JD/GMAT. It is
recommended that you work through each case
unti l you feel very comfortabl e wi th the
procedure. Remember that recording the proper
date and time for each of your observations is
absolutely essential!
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26
Example 1 Observation from Cambridge, MA,
USA (75W time zone) at 9:40 pm Eastern
Daylight Time, June 22, 2000
Step 1: astronomical time = 9:40, June 22, 2000
Step 2: 9:40 - 1 = 8:40 on June 22, 2000
Step 3: JD = 2,451,718
Step 4: GMAT decimal = .6
Final result: 2,451,718.6
Example 2 Observation from Tokyo, Japan
(135E) at 1:15 am, January 10, 2000
Step 1: astronomical time = 13:15, Jan. 9, 2000
Step 2: N/A
Step 3: JD = 2,451,553
Step 4: GMAT decimal = .2
Final Result: 2,451,553.2
Example 3 Observation from Vancouver, BC
Canada (120W) at 05:21 am, February 14,
2000
Step 1: astronomical time = 17:21, Feb. 13, 2000
Step 2: N/A
Step 3: JD = 2,451,588
Step 4: GMAT decimal = 1.1 (add 1 day)
Final Result: 2,451,589.1
Example 4 Observation from Auckland, New
Zealand (180E) at 8:25 pm, April 28, 2000
Step 1: astronomical time = 8:25, Apr.28, 2000
Step 2: N/A
Step 3: JD = 2,451,663
Step 4: GMAT decimal = -0.9 (subtract 1 day)
Final Result: 2,451,662.9
Note that as shown in example 4, if the time
you observe is exactly the same as a time listed
in Table 4.1, you should choose the larger of
the two decimals.
Sample Calculations
The calendar on page 27 is representative of
the one mailed out to AAVSO observers each
year. It gives the last four digits of the Julian
Day for each day of every month of the year
2000 (On the actual calendar, the months July
December are on the reverse side). For the
complete JD, add 2,450,000 to the four digit
value given in the calendar for the Astronomical
Day of your observation.
Some observers prefer to create their own
computer programs or use existing ones to
calculate JD. See the AAVSO website for links to
JD computing programs. ([Link]
cdata/[Link])
UT, GMT, and GMAT
Often in astronomy you will see the time of
events being expressed in Universal Time (or
UT). This is the same as Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT) which starts at midnight in Greenwich,
England. To find the UT equivalent of a specific
time, simply add to it, or subtract from it, as the
case may be, the zone difference for your
observing location. The World Map of Time
Zones (Figure 4.2) is provided to help you to
determine the zone difference for your location.
To convert from UT to Greenwich Mean
Astronomical Time (GMAT) subtract 12 hours.
Two additional reference tables are provided in
this chapter for your convenience:
Table 4.2 lists the JDs for the zero day of each
month from 1996 to 2025. The zero day (which
is actually the last day of the previous month) is
used for ease in calculating the JD of any given
day by making it possible to simply add the
calendar date to the JD listed.
example: Jan. 28, 2005
= (JD for Jan 0) + 28
= 2453371+28
= 2453399
Table 4.3 can be used to find the GMAT decimal
of the day to four decimal places. This degree
of accuracy is only needed for certain types of
stars (see Table 6.1, page 42).
Where does JD come from?
In the Julian Day system, all days are numbered
consecutively from Julian Day zero, which began
at noon on January 1, 4713 BC. Joseph Justus
Scaliger, a French classical scholar of the 16th
century, determined this as the date on which three
important cycles coincided; the 28-year solar cycle,
the 19-year lunar cycle, and the 15-year cycle of
tax assessment called the Roman Indiction.
27
Figure 4.1 Sample JD Calendar
AAV SO
AAV SO, 2 5 Birch St reet , Cambridge, M A 0 2 1 3 8 , U. S. A.
Tel: 6 1 7 -3 5 4 -0 4 8 4

Fax: 6 1 7 -3 5 4 -0 6 6 5
Int ernet : aavso@aavso. org
WWW: ht t p:/ / w w w . aavso. org
JULIAN DAY CALENDAR
2 , 4 5 0 , 0 0 0 plus t he value given under each dat e
JANUARY FEBRUARY
Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
1 1 2 3 4 5
6 14 21 28 5 12
1546 1547 1548 1549 1550 1551 1552 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 1586 1587
1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1558 1559 1588 1589 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594
1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1595 1596 1597 1598 1599 1600 1601
1567 1568 1569 1570 1571 1572 1573 1602 1603 1604
19 27
1574 1575
M ARCH APRIL
Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
6 13 20
1605 1606 1607 1608
4 11 18 26
1636
1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1637 1638 1639 1640 1641 1642 1643
1616 1617 1618 1619 1620 1621 1622 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650
1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 1656 1657
1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 1635
28
1658 1659 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664
1665
M AY JUNE
Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
4
1666 1667 1668 1669 1670 1671
2 9 16 25
1697 1698 1699
1672 1673 1674 1675 1676 1677 1678 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706
1679 1680 1681 1682 1683 1684 1685 1707 1708 1709 1710 1711 1712 1713
1686 1687 1688 1689 1690 1691 1692 1714 1715 1716 1717 1718 1719 1720
1693 1694 1695 1696
10 18 26
1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1726
The AAVSO is a scientific and educational organization which has been serving astronomy for 89 years.
Headquarters of the AAVSO are at 25 Birch Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02138, U.S.A. Annual and
sustaining memberships in the Association contribute to the support of valuable research.
28
Figure 4.2 World Map of Time Zones
World Map of Time Zones produced by HM Nautical Almanac Office Copyright Council
for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils. Reproduced with their permission.
29
Table 4.1 - JD Decimal of the Day - This chart can be used to convert into a tenth of a day, the time
at which an observation is made, expressed in Greenwich Mean Astronomical Time. To use it, find
the longitude that best describes the time zone of your observing location, then move down the
column until you find the two times that bracket the time of your observation (i.e. one time is earlier
and the next time going down the table is later than your observation). Now follow the row across
to the left and record the decimal number. This will be added to the JD integer for the date of your
observation. If the time of your observation is exactly the same as one of the times given on the
table, take the larger of the decimal numbers that bracket it.
West Longitude
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10:49 9:49 8:49 7:49 6:49 5:49 4:49 3:49 2:49
0.5
13:12 12:12 11:12 10:12 9:12 8:12 7:12 6:12 5:12 4:12 3:12 2:12
0.6
15:37 14:37 13:37 12:37 11:37 10:37 9:37 8:37 7:37 6:37 5:37 4:37 3:37
0.7
18:00 17:00 16:00 15:00 14:00 13:00 12:00 11:00 10:00 9:00 8:00 7:00 6:00
0.8
20:25 19:25 18:25 17:25 16:25 15:25 14:25 13:25 12:25 11:25 10:25 9:25 8:25
0.9
21:48 20:48 19:48 18:48 17:48 16:48 15:48 14:48 13:48 12:48 11:48 10:48
0.0
22:13 21:13 20:13 19:13 18:13 17:13 16:13 15:13 14:13 13:13
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3:13 4:13 5:13 6:13 7:13 8:13 9:13 10:13 11:13 12:13 13:13
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3:36 4:36 5:36 6:36 7:36 8:36 9:36 10:36 11:36 12:36 13:36 14:36 15:36
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6:01 7:01 8:01 9:01 10:01 11:01 12:01 13:01 14:01 15:01 16:01 17:01 18:01
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8:24 9:24 10:24 11:24 12:24 13:24 14:24 15:24 16:24 17:24 18:24 19:24 20:24
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10:49 11:49 12:49 13:49 14:49 15:49 16:49 17:49 18:49 19:49 20:49 21:49 22:49
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13:12 14:12 15:12 16:12 17:12 18:12 19:12 20:12 21:12 22:12
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30
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Year Jan 0 Feb 0 Mar 0 Apr 0 May 0 Jun 0 Jul 0 Aug 0 Sep 0 Oct 0 Nov 0 Dec 0
1996 2450083 2450114 2450143 2450174 2450204 2450235 2450265 2450296 2450327 2450357 2450388 2450418
1997 2450449 2450480 2450508 2450539 2450569 2450600 2450630 2450661 2450692 2450722 2450753 2450783
1998 2450814 2450845 2450873 2450904 2450934 2450965 2450995 2451026 2451057 2451087 2451118 2451148
1999 2451179 2451210 2451238 2451269 2451299 2451330 2451360 2451391 2451422 2451452 2451483 2451513
2000 2451544 2451575 2451604 2451635 2451665 2451696 2451726 2451757 2451788 2451818 2451849 2451879
2001 2451910 2451941 2451969 2452000 2452030 2452061 2452091 2452122 2452153 2452183 2452214 2452244
2002 2452275 2452306 2452334 2452365 2452395 2452426 2452456 2452487 2452518 2452548 2452579 2452609
2003 2452640 2452671 2452699 2452730 2452760 2452791 2452821 2452852 2452883 2452913 2452944 2452974
2004 2453005 2453036 2453065 2453096 2453126 2453157 2453187 2453218 2453249 2453279 2453310 2453340
2005 2453371 2453402 2453430 2453461 2453491 2453522 2453552 2453583 2453614 2453644 2453675 2453705
2006 2453736 2453767 2453795 2453826 2453856 2453887 2453917 2453948 2453979 2454009 2454040 2454070
2007 2454101 2454132 2454160 2454191 2454221 2454252 2454282 2454313 2454344 2454374 2454405 2454435
2008 2454466 2454497 2454526 2454557 2454587 2454618 2454648 2454679 2454710 2454740 2454771 2454801
2009 2454832 2454863 2454891 2454922 2454952 2454983 2455013 2455044 2455075 2455105 2455136 2455166
2010 2455197 2455228 2455256 2455287 2455317 2455348 2455378 2455409 2455440 2455470 2455501 2455531
2011 2455562 2455593 2455621 2455652 2455682 2455713 2455743 2455774 2455805 2455835 2455866 2455896
2012 2455927 2455958 2455987 2456018 2456048 2456079 2456109 2456140 2456171 2456201 2456232 2456262
2013 2456293 2456324 2456352 2456383 2456413 2456444 2456474 2456505 2456536 2456566 2456597 2456627
2014 2456658 2456689 2456717 2456748 2456778 2456809 2456839 2456870 2456901 2456931 2456962 2456992
2015 2457023 2457054 2457082 2457113 2457143 2457174 2457204 2457235 2457266 2457296 2457327 2457357
2016 2457388 2457419 2457448 2457479 2457509 2457540 2457570 2457601 2457632 2457662 2457693 2457723
2017 2457754 2457785 2457813 2457844 2457874 2457905 2457935 2457966 2457997 2458027 2458058 2458088
2018 2458119 2458150 2458178 2458209 2458239 2458270 2458300 2458331 2458362 2458392 2458423 2458453
2019 2458484 2458515 2458543 2458574 2458604 2458635 2458665 2458696 2458727 2458757 2458788 2458818
2020 2458849 2458880 2458909 2458940 2458970 2459001 2459031 2459062 2459093 2459123 2459154 2459184
2021 2459215 2459246 2459274 2459305 2459335 2459366 2459396 2459427 2459458 2459488 2459519 2459549
2022 2459580 2459611 2459639 2459670 2459700 2459731 2459761 2459792 2459823 2459853 2459884 2459914
2023 2459945 2459976 2460004 2460035 2460065 2460096 2460126 2460157 2460188 2460218 2460249 2460279
2024 2460310 2460341 2460370 2460401 2460431 2460462 2460492 2460523 2460554 2460584 2460615 2460645
2025 2460676 2460707 2460735 2460766 2460796 2460827 2460857 2460888 2460919 2460949 2460980 2461010
32
33
Table 4.3 JD Decimal (to four places) To use this table, find the GMAT hours across
the top of the page and the minutes down the side. The result is the fraction of the day
represented. GMAT is explained on page 26 of this manual.
34
35
It is recommended that you make an overall plan
of observing, the first of each month, to determine
before even going to the telescope on a given
night, which stars you would like to observe and
how you will find them. Further refinements can
be made on the day you intend to observe. By
planning ahead and being prepared, you will save
yourself much time and frustration, resulting in a
more efficient and rewarding observing
experience.
Choosing which stars to observe
One way to approach your planning session is to
sit down with a list of stars you have chosen for
your observing program and for which you have
charts. Pick a date and time when you plan to
observe, and ask yourself the following questions:
Which of these stars are available for viewing? A
planisphere or monthly constellation chart can be
very helpful for determining which constellations
are visible to you at any given time, and in which
direction you should look. Be mindful that these
tools usually depict the night sky as if you could
see down to the horizon in all directions.
Depending on your observing site, your viewing
area may be limited by obstructions such as trees,
hills, or buildings.
Another way to figure out which stars are available
for viewing is to use Table 5.1 to determine which
hours of Right Ascension are overhead during the
evening (between 9 PM and midnight local time)
for the month you are observing. You can then
choose stars in your program that have
designations that begin with the same two first
digits as the right ascension. (See pages 17-18
for more on variable star designations.) This is an
approximation because the table is only for the
15th of the month. If observing past midnight, just
expand the second entry of the RA range by the
number of hours after midnight you observe. Also,
Table 5.1 does not take into account that
circumpolar constellations could be visible to you
on any night, depending on your latitude.
Chapter 5 PLANNING AN OBSERVING SESSION
Are these stars bright enough for me to see?
Predicted dates of maximum and minimum
brightness for many of the long period variable
stars in the AAVSO observing program are
published each year in the AAVSO Bulletin (see
pages 37-38 for more about the Bulletin and how
to use this valuable tool). This can be a useful aid
for obtaining an approximate brightness for a star
on any given night. The experienced observer
does not spend time on variables below his or
her telescope limit. See pages 1314 for
information on determining your telescopes
limiting magnitude.
When was the last time I observed this star? There
are certain types of variables which should ideally
be observed no more often than weekly, while
others should be observed more frequently. Using
the information summarized in Table 5.2, and
comparing this to your records of when you last
observed a given star, should help you to
determine whether it is time for you to look at it
again or spend your time with another variable.
Plotting the position of a variable
If your telescope does not have setting circles, it
will be helpful for you to find the positions of the
variables you have chosen to observe in a star
Making a Plan
Table 5.1 Observing Window
The tabl e bel ow gi ves the approxi mate
observing windows centered on the 15th of the
month from 2 hours after sunset to midnight.
Month Right Ascension
January 1 9 hours
February 3 11 hours
March 5 13 hours
April 7 15 hours
May 11 18 hours
June 13 19 hours
July 15 21 hours
August 16 23 hours
September 18 2 hours
October 19 3 hours
November 21 5 hours
December 23 7 hours
36
atlas. For all but the brightest variables, this is a
necessary step toward locating the star using your
telescopes finder or simply sighting along the
tube. If you use the AAVSO Variable Star Atlas,
most* variable stars are already marked for you.
If you use another atlas, chances are that the
variables will not be indicated. If this is the case,
you will have to use the position information
given in the header of each chart to plot the
star s ri ght ascensi on and decl i nati on
coordinates on the atlas. Make sure that the
epoch of the position coordinates match the
epoch of the atlas you use, or the position you
plot will be wrong.
Many AAVSO observers use computer software
to plot variables, thereby creating their own
finder charts. This flexibility affords any scale
and virtually any limiting magnitude, but once
again, it must be emphasized that any such
charts can only be used as finders. All
magnitude estimates should only be made using
AAVSO Charts and the comparison star
magnitudes given on these charts. This is
essenti al for the standardi zati on and
homogeneity of variable star observations in the
AAVSO International Database.
A Typical Observing Routine
Each season, consider last years program and
whether to add stars to this years. Order by mail or
download new charts from the AAVSO website as
necessary. At the beginning of the month, make an
overall plan of observing, according to
instrumentation, location, anticipated time available,
and experience. Use the AAVSO Bulletin to
schedule long period variables, or the Newsflash
and Alert Notices, to include any new or requested
objects. Check the weather forecast for a particular
night. Decide what to observe that nightwill you
observe during the evening? Midnight? Early
morning? Plan order of observations, grouping
variables near each other together, and taking into
account the diurnal motion of the night sky (i.e. the
rising/changing order of constellations). Check to
make sure you have the necessary atlas and charts
for your observing targets and put them in
observation order. Check equipmentred flashlight,
etc. Eat a good meal for energy and concentration.
Begin dark-adapting half an hour before going out
(Some observers use red-filtered goggles or
sunglasses). Dress warmly! At the start of the
observing session, record in your log book the date,
time, weather conditions, moon phase, and any
unusual situations. As each star is observed, record
designation, name, time, magnitude, comparison
stars, chart(s) used, and comments in your log book.
At the end of your nightly observing, make any
necessary notes about the session overall. File the
charts used so you can find them again next time.
Enter your observations into your computer or
transcribe them to your permanent record system,
if necessary. If you would like to report some or all
of your observations to AAVSO Headquarters right
away, you may do so by following the procedures
outlined in Chapter 6. At the end of the month,
compile any additional observations not yet reported
(by hand or by computer) to make your AAVSO-
format report. Make and keep a copy of your report.
Submit your report to AAVSO Headquarters as soon
as possible after the first of the month.
*The AAVSO Variable Star Atlas includes all named
variable stars with a range of variability exceeding
0.5 magnitude and a maximum brighter than visual
magnitude 9.5. Also included, regardless of their
magnitudes at maximum, are all other variables in
the AAVSO and Royal Astronomical Society of New
Zealand observing programs as of 1990.
The table below was created to act as a guideline
on how often variable star observations should be
made for the various types of variable stars
described in Chapter 3 of this manual. Due to the
wide range of periods and magnitudes of variation
from type to type, some stars lend themselves
t o more frequent observations than others.
Cataclysmic variables, for example, should be
observed frequently during outbursts because the
brightness is changing so rapidly. Too frequent
observations by one observer of stars that need
observing weekly, such as Mira or semi-regular
variables, however, could distort the light curve and
the average of observations.
Type of Star Observing Frequency
Cepheids every clear night
RR Lyrae stars every 10 minutes
RV Tauri stars once per week
Mira variables once per week
Semiregular once per week
Cataclysmic Variables every clear night
Symbiotic stars* once per week
R CrB stars*at Max once per week
R CrB starsat Min every clear night
Eclipsing Binaries every 10 minutes
during eclipse
Rotating stars every 10 minutes
Flare stars continuously for
10 to 15 minutes
Irregular variables once per week
Suspected variables every clear night
*or every clear night to catch possible small
amplitude pulsations with these stars.
Table 5.2 Frequency of Observations for
Different Variable Star Types
37
AAVSO Bulletin
The AAVSO Bulletin is an essential tool in
planning your observing session each month.
This annual publication contains predicted dates
of maxima and minima for about 560 of the
more regular variables in the AAVSO program.
In addition, there is a schematic representation
which shows when a star should be brighter
than magnitude 11.0 (denoted by a + symbol)
or fainter than 13.5 (a - symbol) over the
course of the year. This information will help
you to determine if you can see a particular star
with your telescope on any given night. A portion
of the Bulletin along with an example of its use
is given in Figure 5.3.
You might wonder; why should you observe the
stars covered in the Bulletin if the AAVSO can
already predict what they will do? The answer
is that the predictions only serve as a guide to
the expected maxima and minima dates. This
may be helpful information when you are
planning an observing session. Although long
period variables are periodic most of the time,
the interval between each maximum may not
always be the same. In addition, individual
cycles may vary in shape and brightness. By
using the predictions and the light curves found
in several AAVSO publications and on the
AAVSO website, the observer can also see how
rapidly the variable may be changing between
maximum and minimum.
Another useful bit of information included in the
Bulletin is a code which indicates how well a
particular star is being observed. Those stars
that are urgently in need of observation are so
indicated. As you become more experienced
with observing, and are looking to expand your
observing program, you may wish to include
some of the stars needing more observation.
AAVSO Alert Notice
Headquarters will issue a special Alert Notice
whenever a particular star shows unusual
behavior, when an unexpected event such as
the discovery of a nova or supernova is
reported, or when there is a request from an
astronomer to observe a certain star in order to
know when to schedule observations of it with
a satellite or ground-based telescope.
AAVSO Alert Notices are available by email
subscription (free-of-charge) or through the
AAVSO website. They are also available via
postal mail via subscription.
Useful AAVSO Publications
AAVSO Newsflash
The AAVSO Newsfl ash i s an el ectroni c
publication that provides timely information on
the eruption of cataclysmic variables and/or
unusual variable star activity. Less formal than
the Alert Notices, this publication is based on
the observations reported daily to AAVSO
Headquarters. Instructions on how to subscribe
(or unsubscribe) to the Newsflash free-of-
charge are given on the AAVSO website (http://
[Link]/publications/[Link]).
Figure 5.2 Sample AAVSO Alert Notice
3
8
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U Cas is brighter than magnitude 11.0 (shown by the +
symbols) from mid-January until the end of April 1999, with
the maximum brightness predicted to occur sometime around
the 6th of March.
S Tuc is predicted to be fainter than 13.5 (- symbols)
from the last week in August until the end of October.
Minimum brightness is expected to occur October 8th.
The & symbol next to the star name, means that more
data is urgently needed on this star.
39
In order for your observations to be included in
the AAVSO International Database, you must
submit them to Headquarters. There are several
ways to produce reports and submit them to
the AAVSO but it is important that you use only
one method and do not send the same
observations more than once.
No matter what the means of submission,
reports must be in standard AAVSO format as
described on pages 41-44 of this manual. It is
essential that AAVSO formatting standards be
followed in order to ensure the consistency of
data in the AAVSO International Database. It
also greatly facilitates the processing of the
approximately 35,000 observations that come
to the AAVSO each month.
If you belong to an astronomy club or make your
observations in company with another variable
star observer, please note that each person
should make their observations independently
and submit a separate report.
Internet Data Submission - WebObs
The preferred and by far the easiest way to
submit observations to Headquarters is through
the AAVSO website. There, you will find a
system cal l ed WebObs that takes your
observations and automatically submits them
to the AAVSO. All you need is a connection to
the Internet and a web browser. When you
submit observations online, WebObs will
automati cal l y format them to AAVSO
specifications. It will also perform various error
checking procedures to make sure you entered
the data correctly. In addition, a complete listing
of your observations is always available so you
can peruse and/or download your contributions
to the AAVSO database at any time.
Another advantage to using WebObs is that your
variable star observations will be available for
use much sooner than if you submit them using
one of the other methods which must undergo
more processing. For example, observations of
cataclysmic variables or stars exhibiting unusual
behavior may appear in the AAVSO Newsflash
(see page 37) the next day after they are
Chapter 6 SUBMITTING OBSERVATIONS TO THE AAVSO
submitted. Also within one business day after
submission, your observations can be viewed
using the online Light Curve Generator (http:/
/[Link]/adata/[Link]) and
will show up in the online Quick Look files.
To start using WebObs all you need to do is fill
out a registration form on the AAVSO website.
Within about one business day you will receive
an email confirming your registration. Then you
can begin using the program. There are plenty
of tutorials, frequently asked questions
(FAQs), and help menus available for you.
However, most people find it simple enough that
they can use it right away. If you have Internet
access, visit the AAVSO website (http://
[Link]/cdata/webobs/) and take the "3-
click Tutorial" on using WebObs.
Email Data Submission
If you do not have ready access to the Internet,
but do have email, this may be the next best
choice for submitting your reports to the AAVSO.
Emai l reports can be sent to AAVSO
Headquarters at any time. Timely observations
of cataclysmic variables or other stars exhibiting
unusual behavior may become part of the
electronic publication Newsflash and will be
available for viewing with the Light Curve
Generator or as part of the Quick Look files
within one business day of when they were
received.
To send variable star reports by email, you must
first create a text file version of your report in
standard AAVSO format. Reports can be
produced using software developed by the
AAVSO or you may devise your own method of
creating a report as long as the result is exactly
the same. This is very important as any
observations given in non-standard formats will
not be accepted (except in special cases by prior
arrangement with AAVSO Headquarters). If you
decide to create your own data-entry program
you should contact AAVSO for more details on
output requirements. As of the publication date
of this Manual, there are two data-entry
programs available from the AAVSO which are
40
described below. Check the AAVSO website
or Newsletter announcements for the latest
updates or announcements on new programs.
Once a text file is created, it should be sent as
an email to the AAVSO Observations account
(observations@[Link]). The observations
themselves should make up the body of the
email and not be sent as an attached file. Any
additional questions or comments that are not
part of the actual report should be sent as a
separate email. Also, the subject line of the email
should reflect the name of the data file including
your observer initials, and the dategiven in
year, month, date format: (initials)YYMMDD
Subject line example:
for a report by BSJ dated March 24, 2000
the subject line would read: BSJ000324
Headquarters. As wi th other computer
generated reports mentioned here, the data files
can be created using any report generating
software as long as the output is in standard
AAVSO format.
If you wish to submit your reports in handwritten
or typed form, please use the standard AAVSO
report forms supplied with a new member kit or
available free-of-charge upon request from
AAVSO Headquarters. You may copy these
forms or request more when you run out. The
forms are also available via download from the
AAVSO website ([Link]
[Link]). A usable blank report form
can be found on pgs. 45-46 while a sample of a
completed one is given in Figure 6.1, page 43.
Faxed Data Submission
The AAVSO will also accept reports by fax. The
fax number of AAVSO Headquarters is: 617-
354-0665 (Outside of the USA and Canada you
will need to dial the county code, which is 01,
as well as any additional numbers required for
you to make an international call.) Since a faxed
report must be typed into a computer by staff at
AAVSO Headquarters, it is important that it be
clear and complete, following standard AAVSO
format. To produce such a report, you can either
print out a file created by a data entry program
or write your report by hand on an AAVSO
Variable Star Observations report form (see
page 45). Please use black or dark blue ink so
that the result will be legible.
Special Reports
If you would like to contribute timely data on
special variable star events such as outbursts
of cataclysmic variables or stars showing rare
or unusual behavior, you may report your
observations by WebObs, email, fax, or
telephone on the night (or the morning after)
they are made. Such observations are used to
alert and inform the astronomical community
of unusual or interesting stellar behavior. It is
essential that such reports adhere strictly to
AAVSO report formatting standards in order for
the data to be processed and made available
for use right away. Some of the observations
reported in this manner will appear in the
electronic publication Newsflash as well as in
the Quick Look files found on the AAVSO
website.
Postal Mail Data Submission
Another way to submit reports to the AAVSO is
via postal mail to AAVSO Headquarters. Such
reports should be sent in once per month, mailed
as soon as possible after the first of the next
month. The address is:
AAVSO
25 Birch Street
Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
Observers with a computer but no email or
Internet access are encouraged to create a text
file of their observations, copy them onto a
diskette, and mail the diskette to AAVSO
AAVSO Data-Entry Software
The AAVSO has created data-entry and report-
formatting programs that may be used to record
variable star observations and prepare monthly
reports in AAVSO format. There is currently a
Windows-based program called PC Obs and a
DOS-based version called KSOLO. The text files
created by either program may be sent by email,
copied to a diskette which you could send to
Headquarters by postal mail, or printed on paper
and sent by postal mail or by fax.
To obtain your own copy of one of the AAVSO
data-entry and report-formatting programs free-
of-charge you may download them from the
AAVSO website or contact AAVSO Headquarters
to request the diskettes. Instructions for use of
these programs are included with the files.
41
NOTE: Special reports sent in by fax or
passed on verbally by telephone must be
resubmitted with a monthly report at a later date
in order for them to become a permanent part
of the AAVSO Internati onal Database.
Observations sent electronically (by
WebObs or email) should be submitted only
once. They will be used for Newsflash and the
Quick Look files, then processed and added
to the permanent AAVSO data files. Please do
not hesitate to phone (617-354-0484) or email
(aavso@[Link]) Headquarters if you have
any questions concerning reporting your
observations.
AAVSO Standard Report Formatting
No matter which method you decide to use for
making and submitting your variable star
reports, it is required that the data adhere to
AAVSO report formatting standards. With
WebObs and AAVSO produced data entry
software, some of these formatti ng
requirements will be met automatically.
Header Information
For proper documentation it is important that
with each report submitted, you include your
name, complete address, the month of the year
of your report, the time system used (GMAT),
and equipment used for your observations. If
you use WebObs, this is done for you from the
information you supply when you fill out the
registration form. The registration form need
only be completed once. If some of the
information on it changes, click on the button
marked Modify User Profile & Report Number
located at the bottom of the observation entry
page. If you use AAVSO data entry software,
you will be prompted for the same header
information. If using the paper report forms,
please fill out the front of the first sheet of your
report completely. Put your name and the month
and year of your report on the front and back of
all subsequent sheets.
AAVSO Observer Initials are assigned by
AAVSO Headquarters technical staff upon
receipt of your first report. If you know your
AAVSO Observer Initials, please put them on
the front and back of each sheet of your report
with observations on it (this is done for you with
WebObs and AAVSO data entry programs). If
you do not know your initials, please leave this
space blank. Once your initials are assigned,
you will be notified by postal mail or email
(usually within 23 weeks.)
General Layout
(Not applicable for WebObs or AAVSO data-
entry program users because the software
automatically accomplishes this.)
List the variables in order of right ascension from
00 to 23 hours. If you make more than one
observation of a star, put them together in order
of Julian Date. If two or more stars have the
same right ascension, list the most northerly one
first. For example: 1909+67, 1909+25, 1909-07.
(For information on variable star designations
see pages 17-18.)
At the bottom of the first page of your report,
please put the total number of observations
(regular plus inner sanctum) and the total
number of inner sanctum observations (inner
sanctum only) in the entire report. An inner
sanctum observation is a positive observation
of a star magnitude 13.8 or fainter, or a fainter-
than observation (you could not see the variable)
of <14.0 or fainter.
A single page should be numbered page 1 of 1. If
several pages are used, number them
consecutively. Thus: page 1 of 4; 2 of 4; 3 of 4;
4 of 4. The last figure (4) is the total number of
pages submitted.
Please use dark ink or a typewriter or printer
with a dark ribbon to prepare your reports. If
you prefer to use pencil, please use a dark, hard
lead which does not smudge easily. If you write
your report by hand, please print clearly! Do not
leave any blank lines between stars.
Designation
The designation for each star observed should
be listed in the first column of your report form.
You can find the designation in the upper left
corner of every AAVSO Variable Star chart if
you dont already know what it is. On some of
the older charts, the + or - signs have been
left out in favor of an underlined designation for
southern stars (e.g. 021403 instead of 0214-
03). Always use the + and - signs when
making your report. (See pages 17-18 for more
about variable star names and designations.)
Variable Name
Please use only the constellation abbreviations
approved by the International Astronomical
Union (IAU) when reporting observations (see
Table 3.1page 19).
42
NOTE: For an up-to-date list of stars (designations
& names) in the AAVSO observing program, please
consult the AAVSO website ([Link]
cdata/[Link]).
Julian Date and the Decimal of the Day
The dates and times of observations must be
submitted in Julian Date and decimal of the day
in Greenwich Mean Astronomical Time (GMAT),
not regular calendar or Universal Time dates.
See Chapter 4 of this manual for more on this
subject. The only exception to this rule is that if
you are using WebObs, dates and times in UT
will be accepted since the program will convert
them automatically to JD. A Julian Day calendar
may be obtained at no charge from AAVSO
Headquarters or downloaded from the AAVSO
website. New calendars will be sent each year
by postal mail to all members and active AAVSO
observers. A current calendar is included with
the new member package.
The types of stars observed once a week should
have the decimal of the day reported to one
decimal place. The types of stars observed every
clear night should have the decimal reported to
four places. See Table 6.1Precision of JD
Needed, right, for different variable star types.
Chapter 4, page 25, gives instructions on how to
figure the Julian Day and Decimal.
Magnitude
Visual magnitudes should be reported to ONE
decimal place. Any visual magnitudes reported
to two decimal places will be rounded off before
they are added to the AAVSO International
Database. Charge-coupled device (CCD) and
photoelectric photometry (PEP) observations
should be reported to two or three decimal places
of magnitude.
If you report a fainter-than observation (i.e. you
could not see the variable), please put a < symbol
and the magnitude of the faintest comparison star
you can see. For example, if you observe a
variable and cannot see it, but the faintest
comparison star that you can see is 14.5, put
<14.5 on your report.
If there is any uncertainty in your estimate, you
may denote this by putting a colon (:) after the
magnitude and indicating the reason for the
uncertainty in the Key & Remarks fields.
Key & Remarks
To make the best use of the data you submit and to
help AAVSO Technical Staff evaluate the data, it is
very important to know why an observation is marked
uncertain, and what comments you might have that
affect that observation. The Key & Remarks field
may be used for explaining the cause of uncertainty
in an observation or for making comments about
observing conditions, etc.
Table 6.2 contains a list of one-letter abbreviations
for comments and their meanings. Please put your
remark(s) in the Remarks part of the field and
put the appropriate one-letter abbreviation(s) in
the Key part of the field.
Comparison star magnitudes
The magnitudes of the comparison stars that are
used to make the observation should be included
in the Comp Stars field of the report. It is very
important to include this information for each
observation. It is not necessary to put the decimal
point in the comparison star magnitudes. (e.g. 98,
101, 106). If there is more than one comp star of
the same magnitude in a variable field, include a
compass direction with the magnitude so it will be
clear which star you used (e.g. 83, 88NE, 92).
Type of Star Report JD to
Cepheids 4 decimal places
RR Lyrae stars 4 decimal places
RV Tauri stars 1 decimal place
Long period variables 1 decimal place
Semiregulars 1 decimal place
Cataclysmic variables 4 decimal places
Symbiotic stars* 1 decimal place
R CrB stars*at Max 1 decimal place
R CrB starsat Min 4 decimal places
Eclipsing Binary stars 4 decimal places
Rotating stars 4 decimal places
Flare stars 4 decimal places
Irregular variables 1 decimal place
Suspected variables 4 decimal places
*Note: Symbiotic stars and R CrB stars may experience
possible small-magnitude, short-period variability. If you
are interested in looking for this, then observations should
be made every clear night and reported to 4 decimal places.
Table 6.1 Precision of JD Needed
43
Chart/Scale/Date
To avoid confusion in the data arising from
revisions of AAVSO finder charts and comparison
star sequences, and from any non-AAVSO charts/
sequences which may be in use, it is essential
that you indicate in the Chart/Scale/Date field the
source, scale, and date of the chart(s) you used
in making an estimate for every observation in
your report. When there is more than one date
given on a chart, please use the most recent one.
Figure 6.1 Sample AAVSO Report


If you report observations of a star not in the
AAVSOs observing program, you must send a
copy of the chart and comparison star sequence
you used. Your observations cannot be added to
the AAVSO International Database without this
information.
Please double-check your report before
sending it to AAVSO Headquarters!
44

These comment letters go in the Key field on the paper AAVSO report form, or in the
Comment Code field in electronic report files. If needed, use more than one letter, keeping
them in alphabetical order. The letters should serve as a general guide to your comment; they
neednt be an exact representation of whats in the report. For example, if you note in the
Remarks field a 12-day moon nearby, just put an M (for moon).

: uncertain
? (do not use this symbol)
A AAVSO Atlas used
B Sky is bright, light pollution, twilight
F Unconventional method (out of focus, visual photometer, etc.)
G Non-AAVSO chart with Guide Star Catalog magnitudes
H Haze, mist, fog
I Identification of star is uncertain
J Non-AAVSO chart with Hipparcos magnitudes
K Non-AAVSO chart - specify origin
L Low in sky, horizon, trees, obstruction
M Moon present or interferes
N Angle, position angle
O "Other" comment (last resort if no other code applies!) - MUST be explained
R Color comment
S Comparison sequence comment or problem; extrapolation
T Non-AAVSO chart with Tycho magnitudes
U Clouds
V Faint star, glimpse, near limit
W Weather, wind, poor seeing in general
Y Activity in star - outburst, fading, flare, unusual behavior
Z Possibly erroneous, doubtful, fatigue

These multiple-letter comment abbreviations go in the Key field on the paper AAVSO report
form, or in the Comment Code field in electronic report files. If you must use a one-letter
abbreviation as well as a multiple-letter comment, skip a space between the two codes.

BLUE Blue filter used for the observation
CCD Charge-coupled device (unfiltered)
CCDB Charge-coupled device (Johnson blue filter)
CCDO Charge-coupled device (orange filter)
CCDR Charge-coupled device (Johnson red filter)
CCDV Charge-coupled device (Johnson visual filter)
CCD-IR Charge-coupled device (with IR-blocking filter)
COMB Observation is of nuclear and nebulous regions COMBined
GREEN Green filter used for the observation
NUC Observation is of the NUClear region
PEP Photoelectric photometer (visual band)
PTG Photographic observation
PV Photovisual observation
RED Red filter used
YELLOW Yellow filter used
Table 6.2 Abbreviations for Comments on AAVSO Reports
45
46
47
As AAVSO data are evaluated, AAVSO Technical staff
and the Director run across several kinds of errors
which are tracked down and rectifieda process
requiring skillful investigative techniques, a good head
for deduction, and dogged tenacity. With apologies to
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, author of Sherlock Holmes,
here are a few of the many success stories of the
detectives known as the Birch Street Irregulars. These
cases also provide the new observer with an idea of
some of the common pitfalls experienced by their
predecessors.
Aborderline data point for
U Cygpossibly good, possibly
badwas looked up ...
A check on the observers report showed that the
Julian Dates for not only U Cyg, but for the entire
report, were off by more than 300 days
compared to the month and year
written in the header.
In comparing the JD calendars for the year of
the report and the previous year, it became
obvious that the observer had copied the JDs
from the previous years calendar.
A curious case: the desig-
nation and star name do not
agree! Which star did the
observer intend to record?
Was it 0533+26 RR Tau or
0533+37 RU Aur?
The problem: many observations in the archives
were recorded with a name and designation for two
different stars. The usual causes include: (1) The
observer reading the designation or name from the
line above in the report form; (2) giving the wrong
component letter, or none at all, in the designation;
or (3) simply writing one stars name while thinking
of another star (for example, WX Cet and WX Cyg).
In its originally recorded
position as 0533+37, this
point seems questionable.
But when plotted as RR Tauthe other
identification in the observers reportthe
magnitude fits.
In this instance of star name
and designation disagreeing,
the observer meant to record
chi Cyg, but the handwritten
Greek letter chi (c) was read
as X by the data entry
technician.
Solution: Always write out the Greek letter
names. (eg. beta Per rather than b Per)
(Adapted from a paper given at the 1994 AAVSO Spring meeting.)
48
For reasons defying explanation, the
observers believed that the star
they were looking at
must be the
variable star.
Some of the points on this plot were made by the
same observer, who probably mistook a nearby
star of constant brightness for the variable star.
IS THERE ANY OTHER POINT WHICH I CAN MAKE CLEAR?
49
In this chapter, we will review the step-by-step
instructions that were presented in Chapter 2
(page 9) by making a simulated estimate of the
variable star Z Ursa Majoris, or Z UMa.
1. Find the field Figures 7.1 and 7.2, on pages
50 and 51, show you the vicinity of this variable.
Beginners should find the field of Z UMa easily,
because it is located within the pan of the Big
Dipper. Figure 7.3, below, shows that Z UMa lies
fairly close to d (delta) Ursa Majoris.
2. Find the variable There are several strategies
you can use to find the variable. Because it lies
relatively close to delta UMa, you might
contemplate a star hop from there. However, there
is also a 5.9 magnitude star just south of the
variable as shown on the b scale chart. Both of
these are good starting points if you are planning
to star hop. Alternatively, you might wish to skip
the hop altogether and attempt to zoom directly
to the variable. Here are some tips depending on
the finding method you are employing.
From delta UMa Pointing at the third magnitude
delta UMa is easy. Figure 7.3 shows the area
from delta to the variable on the AAVSO Variable
Star Atlas.
You now have a choice to star hop by either using
the finder (if you have one) or by using a low
power eyepiece in the main scope. A good
finder scope (8x50 and larger) will show many
of the stars on the AAVSO atlas. One advantage
of using the main scope is that you can get the
orientation correct right away.
From the 5.9 comparison star Almost any
finder scope will reveal the 5.9 star near the
variable. Only under the darkest skies will this
be visible for use with a 1x finder. However,
this star is about equidistant from delta and
gamma (see Figure 7.4) so it is easy to point at
its location. Because of its brightness, it should
be fairly conspicuous in the main scope. From
there, you can use the b scale chart to do a
short star hop to the variable (Figure 7.5).
Chapter 7 SAMPLE OBSERVATION
by Gene Hanson, experienced AAVSO member/observer and mentor
Figure 7.5 Excerpt from b-scale chart
Figure 7.4 Excerpt from atlas
Figure 7.3 Excerpt from AAVSO atlas
50
Figure 7.1 Finding Z UMa using the AAVSO Variable Star Atlas. First, use a planisphere or sky
chart for the appropriate month to verify that the constellation of Ursa Major is visible during the
date and time you wish to observe. If it is, then note the configuration of the brightest stars. Next,
go to the Index page of the AAVSO Variable Star Atlas and locate the same star configuration. You
will probably have to rotate the planisphere to come up with the same orientation. Note that in this
example the Index refers you to Chart 22.
51
Figure 7.2 Finding Z UMa using the AAVSO Variable Star Atlas (continued). Chart 22 from the
AAVSO Variable Star Atlas with constellation lines drawn in and Z UMa circled. Note that the
orientation is different from that of the Index page (shown in Figure 7.1). A miniature version of the
AAVSO a-scale chart is shown below for scale comparison.
52
to match up star images if the orientation is
wrong. A big advantage of star hopping from a
bright star or asterism is that the orientation
problem is taken care of before you zoom in on
the vari abl e. The ori entati on di agrams
presented earlier can be of great help. However,
when in doubt you can always let the field drift.
The direction of the drift will always be WEST.
In Figure 7.6, south is tilted approximately 45
degrees to the right.
Caution: If you are using a telescope with an
odd number of reflections (refractor, Schmidt-
Cassegrain, etc.), ideally you want to use an
AAVSO reversed chart.
(2) Magnification. The b scale chart shows a
relatively large area of the sky. Therefore, you
probably want to use your lowest power
eyepiece. Youll also want to know the actual
field of view. The field of view shown in Figure
7.6 is 2.3 degrees. This 2.3 degree circle has
been drawn onto the b scale chart shown in
Figure 7.7.
(3) Limiting Magnitude. In general, you will find
the stars on the charts much more visible than
those in the eyepiece! This mismatch can also
make field identification difficult. Because it is
more difficult to see stars in the scope, it is
usually better to look for bright stars or star
patterns (asterisms) in the eyepiece first, and
then attempt to locate them on the chart.
A technique that many observers utilize who
choose the directly to the variable approach
is the reverse star hop. If the variable field is
not readily apparent at first glance, scan around
the field looking for asterisms in the field of view
(FOV). Once one is spotted, then go to the chart
and find it there. You now have a known place
from which you can then do the star hop
(presumably back) to the variable. Because of
the small scale, the b charts work particularly
well for this method.
In the Z UMa field, there is a trio of 8.68.8
magnitude stars just north of the variable.
Once you have found these stars in your FOV,
the variable is as good as located.
Tip: If you spot what appears to be a very
noticeable asterism, draw it on your chart. This
will help the next time you are finding this field.
Directly to the variable This means using your
chosen finding method to point as close to the
variable as possible before ever looking through
the main scope. An observer who only uses
setting circles will almost always use this
technique. It is probably the most popular
method among variable star observers.
With a 1x finder, you will use delta and gamma
as guide stars. With a finder scope, you can
also use fainter stars (like the 5.9) not visible
to the naked eye.
Figure 7.6 below shows a small reflector
telescopic view near Z UMa. Just as you would
with the real telescopic view, your task is to
match this with the estimate chart shown in
Figure 7.7 at the right.
The beginner will generally find this challenging
for the following reasons:
(1) The orientations probably dont match.
(2) The magnification will almost certainly
render an image thats a different scale.
(3) The limiting magnitudes will not match.
All three of these fall in the category of
telescope familiarity and should become
easier for you as you gain experience with your
instrument. Here are some tips:
(1) Orientation. Failure to get this right means
frustration. You may find it next to impossible
Figure 7.6 - Z UMa field
53
Figure 7.7 AAVSO b-scale chart of Z UMa with a 2.3 degree Field of View circle drawn in.
54
With More ExperienceAnother advantage
youll gain over time is a feel for the brightness
of stars in your telescope. For example, once
youve seen a variety of 9th magnitude stars on
the charts, youll inherently know how bright
such a star should look. With additional
experience, youll also get a feel for how bright
it should look under moonlight or other adverse
conditions. This helps immeasurably when
finding variable fields.
3. Find the comparison stars Here your task
seems straightforward: find at least one star
brighter and at least one star dimmer than the
variable. The difficulty will vary in direct
proportion to how far away the comparison lies.
A technique that often works well is to locate
probable comp stars in the FOV. That is, locate
a star you think is slightly brighter or dimmer
than the variable. Then, locate that star on the
chart. Chances are, it will indeed be a comp
star. If not, try another. When you run out of
probable comp stars, then you should consult
the chart.
Caution: In your zeal to find the variable, your
mind can play tricks. You may be unfortunate
enough to find a pattern of stars that looks
like the chart and believe that youve found the
variable! In this step, you are not only finding
comparison stars, but you are also helping to
prove your identification. Heed simple warning
signs. If the chart shows a comp star that is not
visible in the scope or very different than the
magnitude indicates, chances are greater that
you have an identification problem rather than
a new variable star!
Though all you need are two stars to bracket
the variable, you are strongly urged to locate
additional comp stars. Are the magnitudes
consistent? If they are not, why? Does just one
of the comp stars look suspicious? Be sure to
recheck the positions. You will find that stars
are plotted on the AAVSO chart with extremely
high accuracy. If there is only one comp star
that seems off, it is best to disregard it and use
the remaining comp stars.
4. Estimate brightness Once youve located
suitable comparison stars, you can finally
perform the estimate step. Figure 7.8 (right)
shows our field with Z UMa centered and with
South up. From this view, it appears that the
variable is between the 80 and 83 stars in
magnitude, and you will interpolate your estimate
from these.
Caution: Most new observers will find the
estimating of real variables more challenging than
in this demonstration. Does the interval between
the 80 and 83 seem small? It is! Consequently,
you should not be surprised if your estimates differ
a bit from those of other observers.
For the purposes of the demonstration, lets
assume an estimate of 81.
5. Record your observation The following
information should be recorded:
Name of the variable: Z UMa.
Designation of the variable: Though this is
not mandatory because you can theoretically
look it up later, writing this at the time of
observation will help catch many potential
errors. For example, in the cold of an observing
session your Us might end up looking like Vs
and vice-versa. The designation will immediately
fix such problems!
Figure 7.8 Z UMa field with comp stars
56
Gene Hanson with his18-inch f/4.5 Obsession reflector and 6-inch f/5 telescope
57

Appendix 1 SAMPLE LONG-TERM LIGHT CURVES
The following pages show examples of long-term light curves of several types of variable stars in
the AAVSO visual observing program. Light curves covering such long periods of time can make
an interesting study of the long-term behavioral changes which some stars exhibit.
Mira (LPV)
18502000 (10-day means)
Mira (omicron Ceti) is the prototype of pulsating long period variables and the first star recognized
to have changing brightness. It has a period of 332 days. Generally, Mira varies between magnitudes
3.5 and 9, but the individual maxima and minima may be much brighter or fainter than these mean
values. Its large amplitude of variation and its brightness make Mira particularly easy to observe.
Mira is one of the few long period variables with a close companion which is also variable (VZ Ceti).
AAVSO
58

SS Cygni (U Gem type)
19002000 (1-day means)
AAVSO
SS Cygni is the brightest dwarf nova type (U Gem subclass) cataclysmic variable in the northern
hemisphere. These stars are close binary systems consisting of a red dwarf stara little cooler
than the Sunand a white dwarf with an accretion disk around it. At approximately 50-day intervals,
SS Cyg brightens (erupts) from magnitude 12.0 to 8.5 due to material from the accretion disk
falling onto the white dwarf. The individual intervals between outbursts can be much longer or
shorter than 50 days.
59

AAVSO
RS Ophiuchi (recurrent nova)
18951995 (1-day means)

RS Ophiuchi is a recurrent nova. These stars have multiple outbursts ranging in brightness from 7
to 9 magnitudes. The outbursts occur at semiregular intervals ranging from 10 to more than 100
years, depending on the star. The rise to maximum is extremely fast, usually within 24 hours, and
the decline may be several months long. The recurrent outbursts are always identical.
60

GK Persei (nova)
1901 Nova-like outburst (from Harvard Annals)
19652000 (1-day means)
AAVSO
GK Persei is a bright nova of 1901. In this close binary system, eruptions occur due to explosive
nuclear burning, on the surface of the white dwarf, of material transferred from the red dwarf. GK
Persei is unique in that after the initial fading of 30 days, the star showed semiperiodic rapid
variations for three weeks and then slowly continued to fade. Decades later, it began having small
dwarf nova-like outbursts about every three years.
61

R Coronae Borealis
19102000 (1-day means)
AAVSO
R Coronae Borealis is the prototype of its class. These rare supergiant stars have rich carbon
atmospheres. They spend most of their time at maximum brightness but at regular intervals rapidly
fade 1 to 9 magnitudes. The drop in brightness is thought to be caused by carbon clouds expelled
from the atmosphere of the star.
62

Z Camelopardalis
19682000 (1-day means)
AAVSO
Z Camelopardalis is the prototype star of a sub-class of dwarf nova-type cataclysmic variables. It
has U Geminorum-like dwarf nova outbursts about every 26 days, when it brightens from magnitude
13.0 to 10.5. At randomly spaced intervals, it experiences standstills in which the brightness
stays constant, about one magnitude below normal maximum, for a few days to 1000 days.
Standstills occur when the mass transfer rate from the solar-type secondary star into the accretion
disk surrounding the white dwarf primary is too high to produce a dwarf nova outburst.
63
Z Ursae Majoris (semiregular)
19352000 (1-day means)
Z Ursae Majoris is a bright, semiregular variable varying between magnitude 7 and 9, with
periodicities of 196 and 205 days. Semiregular variables are giant or supergiant stars pulsating
with amplitudes of variation less than 2.5 magnitudes. They show intervals of periodic variability
accompanied by intervals of irregularity, the relative proportion of which may depend upon the
subclass. This behavior may be due to the interplay of multiple periods.
AAVSO
64
65
There are several committees within the
AAVSO established to accommodate a variety
of special interests amongst AAVSO observers.
You are invited to become involved with any or
all of these programs that interest you.
For more information on a committee, please
contact the committee Chair (listed on a
separate sheet in the new member package),
visit the Observing Programs section of the
AAVSO websi te ([Link]
committees/) or contact AAVSO Headquarters.
In general, all questions, correspondence,
requests for charts, and submission of data for
any of these committees should be sent directly
to the committee Chair.
A brief description of each committee follows:
Charge-Coupled Device (CCD)
The developing technology of Charge-Coupled
Devices (CCDs) plays an important role in the
AAVSOs mission of monitoring variable stars.
A CCD camera contains a light-sensitive silicon
chip that produces an electrical signal, which in
turn is processed and displayed on a computer
monitor. When mounted on your telescope, the
result is a digital image of the star field you are
observing.
The AAVSO CCD Committee was formed In
1991 to cover both the scientific aspects of CCD
observing and CCD observing issues.
Standard equipment for CCD observing is a
moderate- or large-aperture telescope, a CCD
camera, appropriate red-blocked BVRI filters,
and CCD reduction software.
The AAVSO has prepared special charts for
CCD observing of several stars in its visual
observing program which are very faint at
minimum. These charts may be obtained free-
of-charge from Headquarters or downloaded
from the AAVSO website ([Link]
committees/[Link]).
Photoelectric Photometry (PEP)
If you have a good 6 or 8 inch telescope with a
reliable clock drive, and a photoelectric
photometer with appropriate filters, you are
encouraged to participate in the AAVSO PEP
Observing Program. A photoelectric photometer
is an electronic device you can make or buy,
Appendix 2 COMMITTEES OF THE AAVSO
Gary Walkers telescope with CCD
Since they are about 30 times as sensitive as
the best photographic emulsions, CCDs make
it possible to obtain fainter observations of
variable stars, thus complementing the AAVSO
visual and photoelectric programs in a significant
way. The data obtained can easily be stored for
future analysis.
CCD image of FO PER by R. Zissell
66
which converts a low-intensity light signal into
an electronic pulse. The pulse is then amplified
and displayed as a number from which the
magnitude of the object you are observing can
be determined very precisely.
Of the over 2000 variable stars currently in the
AAVSO visual observing program, there are
about 100 mostly bright variables that are best
observed photoelectrically because of their
small amplitude, short period, and/or other
interesting features. These stars are in the
AAVSO Photoelectric Photometry Observing
Program which was initiated in 1983.
To ensure standardized observing of stars in
its PEP Observing Program, the AAVSO has
developed special PEP finder charts which are
available from the Chair of the committee. An
AAVSO PEP Chart Catalog is available from
AAVSO Headquarters.
Eclipsing Binary (EB)
and RR Lyrae Committees
Visual observation of eclipsing binary and
RR Lyrae stars is a valuable contribution that
interested observers can make (see Chapter 3
for a description of these types of stars). These
stars need far more observati ons on a
conti nui ng basi s than can be made by
professional astronomers. One reason for the
importance of making these observations is that
many of these stars, especially eclipsing
binaries, undergo period changes which need
to be tracked.
Special techniques are required for observing
EB and RR Lyrae stars, and advance planning
is essential to acquiring useful data. For
example, with eclipsing binaries, it is only
necessary to observe them just before, during,
and after an eclipse takes place. Also, since the
eclipses often occur in just a matter of hours,
the time of each observation must be recorded
much more accurately than with regular variable
star observati ons. Chart s and more
information on observing techniques can be
obtained from the committee Chair.
Solar Division
The main activity of the AAVSO Solar Division
is the monitoring of sunspots, from which the
American Relative Sunspot Numbers (R
a
) are
computed. This program was started in 1944
when the Solar Division was first formed. The
AAVSO American Relative Sunspot Program
produces an independent sunspot index.
Photo of sunspot group by Art Whipple
Those who parti ci pate i n the Ameri can
Relative Sunspot Program use relatively small
instruments for sunspot observations. The Sun
is observed each clear day, and counts are made
of the number of sunspot groups and the total
number of spots. These observations are then
reported on a standard form which is sent to the
Chairman of the AAVSO Solar Division at the
end of each month.
The AAVSO Solar Division also includes the
work of a smaller group of observers who
monitor very low frequency radio stations for
Kevin Kriscunas 6 reflector with
Photoelectric Photometer
67
sudden enhancements of their signals (Sudden
Ionospheric Disturbances or SIDs), and thus
detect solar flares indirectly.
Each month, both the computed values of the
American Relative Sunspot Numbers and of the
SIDs, are forwarded to the National Geophysical
Data Center (NGDC) of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
NOTE: Never look directly at the Sun,
especially when using binoculars or telescopes
without using equipment specifically designed
for the purpose. The ultraviolet radiation from
the Sun will damage the eye and can cause
blindness.
Nova Search Committee
The Nova Search Committee of the AAVSO was
established in the early 1930s with the belief
that a serious stargazer can render valuable
contributions to astronomy with a systemized
visual search for and discovery of novae in the
Milky Way. Those regions in our galaxy where
novae are most likely to occur have been divided
into areas. An observer who is interested in
searching for novae is assigned specific areas,
but once you have searched these, you can go
on to other areas, thus encouraging a thorough
coverage of the sky. In addition to searching
specific areas, an observer can also add a
dome search to his program. This is a naked
eye scan of the whole visible sky, whose
purpose is to catch a bright nova among the
brightest stars (down to 3rd magnitude) of the
constellations.
The standard equipment for the AAVSO Nova
Search is a good atlas, such as the AAVSO
Variable Star Atlas, and a pair of 7 x 50
binoculars.
At the end of each month, the observer uses
special forms to report the dome and area
searches and faintest magnitudes checked.
Potenti al di scoveri es are veri fi ed by an
experienced observer. If an object is verified as
new, the AAVSO Director is contacted
immediately. Upon having the discovery
confirmed, she contacts the Central Bureau for
Astronomical Telegrams at the Smithsonian
Astrophysi cal Observatory, to al ert the
astronomical community via the International
Astronomical Union Circular.
Supernova Search Committee
The purpose of the Supernova Search
Committee is to search for supernovae in other
galaxies.
Standard equipment for this search is a
tel escope capabl e of maki ng useful
observations of galaxies (usually seeing 14th
magnitude stars, at least), and a collection of
reference charts and photos showing the normal
appearance of all the galaxies which the
observer is currently monitoring. Negative
galaxy observations and observations of
supernovae should be reported to AAVSO
Headquarters.
AAVSO Supernova Search committee chair, Robert Evans,
presents Nova Award to Samantha Beaman, April 1996
Elizabeth Eggleston and Celestron with solar filter
Figure A.1 Two photos of galaxy NGC 1316
ESO B survey Photo by R. Evans
showing SN 1981D
68
69
For updates to this list go to the AAVSO website and click on Variable Stars - Further Reading (http:/
/[Link]/vstar/[Link]). You can also find links to numerous websites of interest by
clicking on links at the bottom of any page.
Reading Materials
Atlases
American Association of Variable Star Observers, Charles Scovil, ed. AAVSO Variable Star
Atlas. Cambridge, MA: AAVSO, 1990. ISBN 1-878174-00-2. (to magnitude 9.5)
Ridpath, Ian, ed. Nortons Star Atlas and Reference Handbook. Addison-Wesley, 1998.
ISBN 0-582356-55-5. (to magnitude 6)
Sinnott, Roger W., and Michael A. C. Perryman. Millennium Star Atlas. Cambridge, MA: Sky
Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0-933346-84-0. (to magnitude 11)
Tirion, Wil, and Roger W. Sinnott. Sky Atlas 2000.0 (second edition). Cambridge, MA: Sky
Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0-933346-87-5. (to magnitude 8.5)
Tirion, Wil. Cambridge Star Atlas (second edition). New York: Cambridge UP, 1996. ISBN 0-521-
56098-5. (to magnitude 6)
Tirion, Wil, Barry Rappaport, and George Lovi. Uranometria 2000.0. Richmond Virginia:
Willmann-Bell, 1993. Vol. 1: N. Hemisphere ISBN 0-943396-14-X; Vol. 2: S.
Hemisphere, ISBN 0-943396-15-8. (to magnitude 9+)
Books on variable star astronomybasic and introductory topics
American Association of Variable Star Observers. Variable Star Symposium (History, Science,
Associations). Journ. AAVSO 15.2, 1986. ISSN: 0271-9053.
Campbell, Leon, and Luigi Jacchia. The Story of Variable Stars. Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1941.
Furness, Caroline E. Introduction to the Study of Variable Stars. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1915.
Hoffleit, Dorrit. Women in the History of Variable Star Astronomy. Cambridge, MA: AAVSO, 1993.
Hoffmeister, Cuno, G. Richter, and W. Wenzel. Variable Stars. New York/Berlin: Springer-
Verlag, 1985. ISBN 3540-13403-4.
Kolman, Roger S. Observe and Understand Variable Stars. The Astronomical League, 1999.
Levy, David H. Observing Variable Stars: A Guide for the Beginner. New York: Cambridge UP,
1989. ISBN 0-521-32113-1.
Marschall, L. The Supernova Story. Princeton UP, 1994.
Merrill, Paul W. The Nature of Variable Stars. New York: Macmillan, 1938.
Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia, and Sergei Gaposchkin. Variable Stars. Harvard College
Observatory Monograph 5. Cambridge, MA: Harvard College Observatory, 1938.
Percy, John R., ed. The Study of Variable Stars Using Small Telescopes. New York: Cambridge
UP,1986. ISBN 0-521-33300-8.
Percy, John R., Janet Akyz Mattei, and Christiaan Sterken, eds. Variable Star Research: An
International Perspective. New York: Cambridge UP, 1992. ISBN 0-521-40469-X.
Books on variable star astronomyadvanced topics
Bode, M. F., ed. RS Ophiuchi and the Recurrent Nova Phenomenon. Utrecht: VNU Science P,
1987. ISBN 90-6764-074-3.
Clark, David H. and F. Richard Stephenson. The Historical Supernovae. New York: Pergamon,
1977.
Duquennoy, Antoine and Michel Mayor, eds. Binaries as Tracers of Stellar Formation. New
York: Cambridge UP, 1992. ISBN 0-521-43358-4.
Hack, Margherita, and Constanze la Dous, eds. Cataclysmic Variables and Related Objects.
Washington, DC: NASA Scientific and Technical Information Branch, 1993.
Ibanoglu, Cafer, ed. Active Close Binaries. Boston: Kluwer, 1990. ISBN 0-7923-0907-3.
Appendix 3 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
70
Ibanoglu, Cafer, ed. Variable Stars as Essential Astrophysical Tools. Boston: Kluwer, 2000.
ISBN 0-7923-6083-4.
Kenyon, S. J. The Symbiotic Stars. New York: Cambridge UP, 1986. ISBN 0-521-26807-9.
Kholopov, P. N. et al. General Catalogue of Variable Stars, 4th ed. Moscow: Nauka, 1985.
Kondo, Y., et al., eds. Evolutionary Processes in Interacting Binary Stars. Boston: Kluwer, 1992.
ISBN 0-7923-1731-9.
Kopal, Zdenek. An Introduction to the Study of Eclipsing Variables. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP,
1946.
Kopal, Zdenek. Close Binary Systems. New York: Wiley, 1959.
Mattei, Janet A., and Michel Grenon, eds. Variable Stars: New Frontiers. San Francisco: Ast.
Soc. of the Pacific, 1998 (in press).
Merrill, Paul W. Spectra of Long-Period Variable Stars. U Chicago P, 1940.
Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia. The Galactic Novae. New York: Dover, 1964.
Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia. Stars and Clusters. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1979.
ISBN 0-674-83440-2.
Plavec, Mirek, et al., eds. Close Binary Stars: Observations and Interpretation. Boston: D.
Reidel, 1980. ISBN 90-277-1116-X.
Pringle, J.E., and R.A. Wade, eds. Interacting Binary Stars. New York: Cambridge UP, 1985.
ISBN 0-521-26608-4.
Sahade, J., and F. B. Wood. Interacting Binary Stars. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978.
ISBN 0-08-021656-0.
Smith, Horace A. RR Lyrae Stars. New York: Cambridge UP, 1995. ISBN 0-521-32180-8.
Sterken, Christiaan, and Carlos Jaschek, eds. Light Curves of Variable Stars. New York:
Cambridge UP, 1997.
Warner, Brian. Cataclysmic Variable Stars. New York: Cambridge UP, 1995. ISBN 0-521-41231-5.
Wing, Robert F., ed. The Carbon Star Phenomenon (I.A.U. Symposium 177). Boston: Kluwer, 2000.
ISBN 0-7923-6347-7.
Articles about variable stars and related topics
American Association of Variable Star Observers. Proceedings of the AAVSO Session on Mira
Stars. Journ. AAVSO 25.2, 1997. ISSN: 0271-9053.
Baldwin, Marvin E. Techniques for Visual Observation of Eclipsing Binary Stars. Journ.
AAVSO 4.1, 1975.
Briggs, John W. Star Patrol. Air & Space, September 1986, 6166.
Carlson, George A. Sighting Cepheid Variables. Scientific American, November 1992, 128130.
Cannizzo, John K., and Ronald H. Kaitchuck. Accretion Disks in Interacting Binary Stars. Scientific
American, January 1992, 9299.
Croswell, Ken. The First Cepheid. Sky & Telescope, October 1997, 9091.
Filippenko, Alex V. A Supernova with an Identity Crisis. Sky & Telescope, 30, December 1993.
Garrison, R. F. Personalities of Mira Variables as Revealed by their SpectraVerdict: Bizarre!
Journ. AAVSO, 25.2, 1997, 7071.
Gaskell, C. Martin. Variable Star Observations in an Introductory Astronomy Course. Journ.
AAVSO. 20.1, 1991, 4150.
Hoffleit, Dorrit. History of the Discovery of Mira Stars. Journ. AAVSO 25.2, 1997, 115136.
Hoffleit, Dorrit. A History of Variable Star Astronomy to 1900 and Slightly Beyond. Journ.
AAVSO 15.2, 1986, 77106.
Hogg, Helen Sawyer. Variable Stars. In Gingerich, Owen, ed., Astrophysics and Twentieth-
Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A. The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. New
York: Cambridge UP, 1984, 7389.
Isles, John E. Beta Lyrae Revisited. Sky & Telescope, June 1994, 7274.
Isles, John E. A Variable Star and a Variable Nebula. Sky & Telescope, November 1997, 98100.
Isles, John E. The Dwarf Nova U Geminorum. Sky & Telescope, December 1997, 9899.
Isles, John E. The Top 12 Naked-Eye Variable Stars. Sky & Telescope, May 1997, 8082.
Isles, John E. Miras 400th Anniversary. Sky & Telescope, February 1996, 7273.
Isles, John E. R Hydraes Helium-Shell Flash. Sky & Telescope, May 1996, 6870.
Karovska, Margarita. High Angular Resolution Observations of Miras. Journ. AAVSO 25.2, 1997, 75-79.
71
Little-Marenin, Irene R., and Stephen J. Little. What Kinds of Dust Exist in Circumstellar Shells
of Miras? Journ. AAVSO 25.2, 1997, 8087.
Leavitt, Henrietta S. Discovery of the Period-Magnitude Relation. Reprinted in Shapley, Harlow,
Source Book in Astronomy 1900-1950. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1960, pp. 186189.
MacRobert, Alan M. The Lure of Variable-Star Observing. Sky & Telescope, March 1996, 4851.
Mattei, Janet A. Introducing Mira Variables. Journ. AAVSO, 25.2, 1997, 5762.
Mattei, Janet A. Visual Observing of Variable Stars. In Percy, John R., ed., The Study of
Variable Stars Using Small Telescopes. New York: Cambridge UP, 1986. ISBN 0-521-
33300-8.
Mattei, Janet A., E. Mayer, and M. Baldwin. Variable Stars and the AAVSO. Sky & Telescope,
60, 1980, 180.
Mattei, Janet A., E. Mayer, and M. Baldwin. Observing Variable Stars. Sky & Telescope, 60,
1980, 80.
Percy, John R. Observing Variable Stars for Fun and Profit. Mercury, MayJune 1979, 4552.
Percy, John R. Variable Stars. The Physics Teacher, 31, December 1993, 541543.
Percy, John R., Laura Syczak, and Janet A. Mattei. Using 35-mm Slides for Measuring
Variable Stars. The Physics Teacher, 35, September 1997, 349351.
Percy, John R. Studies of Mira Stars and Their Small Amplitude Relatives. Journ. AAVSO,
25.2, 1997, 9398.
Starrfield, Sumner, and Steve Shore. Nova Cygni 1992: Nova of the Century. Sky &
Telescope, February 1994, 20.
Trimble, Virginia. Supernovae: An Impressionistic View. Journ. AAVSO, 15.2, 1986, 181188.
Webbink, Ronald F. Cataclysmic Variable Stars. American Scientist, 77, May-June 1989, 248
255.
Willson, Lee Anne. Theoretical Glue: Understanding the Observed Properties of Miras with the
Help of Theoretical Models. Journ. AAVSO. 25.2, 1997, 99114.
Wing, Robert F. Narrow-Band Photometry of Mira Variables. Journ. AAVSO 25.2, 1997, 63
69.
Zwicky, Fritz. Supernovae. In S. Flugge, ed. Encyclopedia of Physics, Astrophysics II: Stellar
Structure, Vol. LI, 766-785. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1958.
Other astronomy booksbasic topics
Allen, Richard Hinckley. Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning. New York: Dover, 1963.
Bishop, Roy L., ed. Observers Handbook [published annually]. Toronto: Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, 124 Merton St.; Toronto, Canada M4S 2Z2.
Burnham, Robert, Jr. Burnhams Celestial Handbook (3 Volumes). New York: Dover, 1978.
Chaisson, Eric, and Steve McMillan. Astronomy Today. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1997. ISBN 0-13-712382-5.
Chaisson, Eric, and Steve McMillan. Astronomy: A Beginners Guide to the Universe.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN 0-13-644063-0.
Chaisson, Eric. Cosmic Dawn: The Origins of Matter and Life. New York: Norton, 1981. ISBN 0-
393-30587-2.
Chartrand, M. Skyguide. Golden Press, 1982.
Clerke, Agnes M. The Systems of Stars. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1905.
Cohen, M. In Darkness Born: The Story of Star Formation. New York: Cambridge UP, 1988.
ISBN 0-521-26270-4.
Dickinson, Terence. Exploring the Night Sky. Camden East, Ontario: Camden House, 1987.
ISBN 0-920656-64-1.
Dickinson, Terence. The Universe and Beyond. Camden East, Ontario: Camden House, 1992.
ISBN 0-921820-51-8.
Dickinson, Terence. Nightwatch: An Equinox Guide. Camden East, Ontario: Camden House,
1983. ISBN 0-920656-89-7.
Dickinson, Terence. The Backyard Astronomers Guide. Camden East, Ontario: Camden
House, 1991. ISBN 0-921820-11-9.
Dickinson, Terence. Summer Stargazing. Camden East, Ontario: Camden House, 1996. ISBN
1-55209-014-0.
Dickinson, Terence, and Jack Newton. Splendors of the Universe. Camden East, Ontario:
Camden House. ISBN 1-55209-141-4.
72
Ferris, T. Coming of Age in the Milky Way. New York: Morrow, 1988.
Gribbin, John, and Simon Goodwin. Origins: Our Place in Hubbles Universe. Woodstock, NY:
Overlook P, 1998. ISBN 0-87951-813-8.
Harrington, Philip S. Star Ware: The Amateur Astronomers Guide to Choosing, Buying, and
Using Telescopes and Accessories. New York: Wiley, 1994.
Harrington, Philip [Link] the Universe Through Binoculars. New York: Wiley,1990. ISBN 0-471-1337-7
Heifetz, Milton D., and Wil Tirion. A Walk Through the Heavens: A Guide to Stars and
Constellations and Their Legends. New York: Cambridge UP, 1996. ISBN 0-521-46980-5.
Isles, John E. Webb Society Deep Sky Observers Handbook, Vol. 8: Variable Stars. Hillside,
NJ: Enslow, 1991.
Kaler, James B. The Ever-Changing Sky: A Guide to the Celestial Sphere. New York: Cambridge
UP, 1996. ISBN 0-521-38053-7.
Kippenhahn, Rudolf. Light from the Depths of Time. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987.
ISBN 0-387-17119-3.
Levitt, I. M. and Roy K. Marshall. Star Maps for Beginners. New York: Simon and Schuster,
1987. ISBN 0-671-6376-6.
Levy, David H. The Sky, A Users Guide. New York: Cambridge UP, 1993. ISBN 0-521-39112-1.
MacRobert, Alan. Star Hopping for Backyard Astronomers. Belmont, MA: Sky Publishing, 1994.
Malin, David. A View of the Universe. New York: Cambridge UP, 1993.
Mayall, Newton, Margaret Mayall, and Jerome Wyckoff. The Sky Observers [Link] York:
Golden P, 1959.
Moche, Dinah L. Astronomy: A Self-Teaching Guide. New York: Wiley, 1993. ISBN 0-471-53001-8.
Moore, Patrick, and Wil Tirion. Cambridge Guide to Stars and Planets. New York: Cambridge UP,
1997. ISBN 0-521-58582-1.
Moore, Patrick. Exploring the Night Sky with Binoculars. New York: Cambridge UP, 1989.
ISBN 0-521-36866-9.
Pasachoff, Jay M. Astronomy from the Earth to the Universe, 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders,
1997. ISBN 0-03-024347-5.
Pasachoff, Jay M. Peterson Field Guide to the Stars and Planets. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
2000. ISBN 0-395-93431-1.
Rey, H., updated by Jay M. Pasachoff. The Stars: A New Way To See Them. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1989.
Ridpath, Ian and Wil Tirion. The Monthly Sky Guide, 5th edition. New York: Cambridge UP,
1999. ISBN 0-521-66771-2.
Robinson, J. Hedley. Astronomy Data Book. New York: Wiley/Halsted, 1972. ISBN 470-72801-9.
Van Allen, J. 924 Elementary Problems and Answers in Solar System Astronomy. Iowa City, IA:
U Iowa P, 1993. ISBN 0-87745-434-5.
Whitney, Charles A. Whitneys Star Finder. New York: Random House, 1990.
Other astronomy booksadvanced topics
Bohm-Vitense, Erika. Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics Volume One: Basic Stellar Observations
and Data. New York: Cambridge UP, 1989. ISBN 0-521-34869-2.
Bohm-Vitense, Erika. Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics Volume Two: Stellar Atmospheres.
New York: Cambridge UP, 1989. ISBN 0-521-34870-6.
Bohm-Vitense, Erika. Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics Volume Three: Stellar Structure and
Evolution. New York: Cambridge UP, 1992. ISBN 0-521-34871-4.
Hoffleit, Dorrit, and Carlos Jaschek. The Bright Star Catalogue (4th revised edition). New
Haven, CT: Yale University Observatory, 1982.
Hoffleit, Dorrit, Michael Saladyga, and Peter Wlasuk. A Supplement to the Bright Star
Catalogue. New Haven, CT: Yale University Observatory, 1983. ISBN 0-914753-01-0.
Jaschek, Carlos, and Mercedes Jaschek. The Behavior of Chemical Elements in Stars. New
York: Cambridge UP, 1995. ISBN 0-521-41136-X
Jaschek, Carlos, and Mercedes Jaschek. The Classification of Stars. New York: Cambridge UP,
1987. ISBN 0521-26773-0.
Kaler, James B. Stars and their Spectra: An Introduction to the Spectral Sequence. New York:
Cambridge UP, 1997. ISBN 0-521-58570-8.
73
Some Magazines, Journals, and Calendars on Astronomy
Astronomical Calendar. Published yearly by Guy Ottewell, Astronomical Workshop, Furman
University, Greenville, SC 29613.
Astronomy. Kalmbach Publishing Co., 21027 Crossroads Circle, PO Box 1612, Waukesha,
WI 53187.
Journal of the American Association of Variable Star Observers. AAVSO, 25 Birch St.,
Cambridge, MA 02138.
Journal of the British Astronomical Association. The British Astronomical Association,
Burlington House, Piccadilly, London W1V 9AG, England.
Publications of the Variable Star Section. Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand. Frank M.
Bateson, Director VSS, PO Box 3093, Greerton, Tauranga, New Zealand.
Mercury. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 390 Ashton Avenue, San Francisco, CA
94112.
Observers Handbook. The Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, 136 Dupont Street, Toronto,
Ontario, M5R 1V2, Canada.
Odyssey Magazine [astronomy for children]. Cobblestone Publishing, 7 School St.,
Peterborough, NH 03458.
The Reflector: The Astronomical League Newsletter. Executive Secretary, The Astronomical
League, Janet Stevens, 2112 Kingfisher Lane East, Rolling Meadows, IL 60008.
Sky & Telescope. Sky Publishing Corp., PO Box 9111, Belmont, MA 02178.
Software
Guide. Project Pluto, Bowdoinham, ME ([Link])
Hands-On Astrophysics: VSTAR data analysis, HOAENTER data entry, HOAFUN
introduction to variable stars ([Link]
MegaStar. Willmann-Bell, Richmond, VA ([Link])
Red Shift. Maris Multimedia, Ltd., Kingston, UK ([Link])
Starry Night Backyard and Starry Night Pro. Sienna Software, Toronto, Ontario
([Link])
TheSky and RealSky. Software Bisque, Golden, CO ([Link])
74
75
INDEX
Alert Notices 37
asterisms 9, 52
atlas 5, 36
Bulletin 3738
cataclysmic variables 2123
CCD (charge-coupled device) 65
chart scales 6
charts 58
charts, orientation of 1112
comparison stars 9-10
constellation names 19
data-entry software 40
designation 1718
eclipsing binaries 23
eruptive variables 21
eyepieces 4
fainter-than 15, 42
field of view 4
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) 25, 26
Greenwich Mean Astronomical Time (GMAT) 25, 26
inner sanctum observations 41
interpolation 10
irregular variables 21
Julian date, how to compute 25
Julian date, sample calculations 26
Julian date, table for 19962025 31
Julian date, table of decimals 29, 33
key star 9
KSOLO 40
light curve, definition 20
light curve, examples 2023
light curves, long term 5763
limiting magnitude 1314
magnitude 13
Newsflash 37
Nova Search Committee 67
novae 21
observations, how to make 9
observations, how to submit 3944
observations, recording 15
observer initials 41
observing equipment 3-5
orientation of charts 1112
PC Obs (data-entry program) 40
PEP (photoelectric photometer) 6566
phase diagram 20
pulsating variables 2021
Purkinje effect 15
report form, blank 4546
report form, comment codes 44
report form, how to complete 4143
reporting observations 3943
rotating stars 23
RR Lyrae stars 21
seasonal gap 2
setting circles 9
SID (Sudden Ionispheric Disturbance) 6667
Solar Division 6667
star charts 58
star hop 14, 49
sunspots 66
Supernova Search 67
supernovae 21
time zone chart 28
Universal time (UT or UTC) 26
variable star names 17
variable stars, types of 2023
WebObs 39