Chapter 31 FUNGI

Fungi are eukaryotic organisms with a characteristic nutritional mode, structural organization,
growth and reproduction.
They play an important role in nature as decomposers of the dead bodies of plants and animals,
and in the recycling of nutrients.
Plants depend on mutualistic fungi that help their roots absorb minerals and water from the soil.
Fungi are also the source of antibiotics and drugs used in medicine.
FUNGI ARE HETEROTROPHS THAT FEED BY ABSORPTION
Fungi acuire their nutrients by absorption.
Fungi digest food outside their bodies by secreting hydrolytic enzymes called exoenzymes, and
breaking down comple! molecules into simpler compounds that the fungus can absorb and use.
"aprobic fungi also known as decomposers, absorb nutrients from dead organisms or their
fallen parts, e. g. bark, fallen lea#es, dead animals, fallen fruits, etc.
Parasitic fungi absorb their nutrients from the tissues of their li#ing hosts. Parasitic fungi are
#ery harmful to agriculture.
$utualistic fungi absorb nutrients from their li#ing partners but pro#ide their partners with some
beneficial nutrient or other function.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KINGDOM
1. $ulticellular or unicellular eukaryotes.
The filaments forming the fungal body are called hyphae %hypha&.
The network of hyphae is called the mye!"#m$
'yphae may or may not be di#ided by cross(walls called sep%a. "epta usually ha#e
pores that allow the flow of organelles from one cell to another.
Coenoy%" &#n'" lack septa and are multinucleated.
Parasitic fungi ha#e hyphae modified into haustoria that penetrate the cells of the host to
absorb nutrients.
$ycorrhizae are mutualistic associations of fungi with the roots of plants.
o E%omyo((h"za!) hyphae on the surface of the roots.
o En)omyo((h"za!) penetrate the root and form in#aginations in the cortical cells.
*lso called a(*#s#!a( myo((h"za!$
+. Cell wall including that of spores is made of h"%"n, a polymer of a nitrogen(containing sugar.
Chitin is also found in the e!oskeleton of arthropods.
Chitin is #ery resistant to microbial degradation.
3. $ost reproduce se!ually and ase!ually by means of spores.
"pores are produced by mitosis or zygotic meiosis.
"pores may be produced se!ually or ase!ually.
"pores are nonmotile e!cept in chytrids.
,. 'aploid organisms with the diploid phase of the life cycle represented only by the zygote.
'yphae may be mono+a(yo%", )"+a(yo%" or oenoy%".
'yphae from different fungi may fuse and their mycelia may ha#e genetically different
nuclei. These mycelia are called he%e(o+a(yons.
-. .ack chlorophyll, are heterotrophs that absorb nutrients from the en#ironment.
/!tracellular digestion by secreting hydrolytic enzymes and acids on the food source.
0eleased molecules are absorbed mostly near the growing hypha tip.
"aprophytes, parasites and symbionts.
1. "tore food in the form of lipids and glycogen.
2lycogen is a glucose polysaccharide found also in animals.
,IFE CYC,E
"ome fungi reproduce only ase!ually, while others are entirely se!ual. $any ha#e a se!ual and
an ase!ual mode of reproduction.
*se!ual spores are produced in spo(an'"a or from on")"o'eno#s e!!s.
Con")"a may be produced singly or in chains.
The stalk on which the conidia are produced is called on")"opho(e.
"e!ual spores are produced in three stages) plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis.
P!asmo'amy refers to the fusion of two hyphae %con3ugation&.
Ka(yo'amy is the fusion of nuclei. 4t may occur immediately after con3ugation or may be
delayed producing a )"+a(yon, a cell with two nuclei.
5ikaryotic cells may e!ist for months and years, and multiply producing more dikaryotic
cells.
Me"os"s follows karyogamy sooner or later reestablishing the haploid condition.
$eiosis results in the formation of specialized spores) zy'ospo(es, asospo(es-
*as")"ospo(es.
Fungi are often classified according to the types of se!ual spores that are produced
"pore 6 germination 6 mycelium 6 plasmogamy 6 heterokaryotic stage 6 karyogamy 6
zygote 6 meiosis 6 spore producing structures 6 spore... 7see fig. 31.3, page 1189
E.O,UTION OF THE FUNGI
The e#olutionary history of the fungi is poorly understood.
The fungi appear to be a monophyletic lineage with greater relationship to animals than to
plants.
Fungi probably e#ol#ed from an ancestor common with the amoebas called nucelariids.
.ink between the fungi and protists may be the hy%(")s, which are fungi that ha#e retained the
flagellated condition.
5:* seuence data indicates that the fungi, animals and their protistan relati#es %the
opisthokonts& form a single clade.
$olecular data suggests that fungi are more closely related to the protistan nucleariids
than to other opisthokonts.
*nimals appear to be more closely related to choanoflagellates than to nucleariids and
fungi.
These results indicate that multicellularity e#ol#ed in animals and fungi independently
from single cell ancestors.
"cientists ha#e estimated that the ancestors of fungi and animals di#erged about one *"!!"on
yea(s a'o.
The oldest undisputed fossil of fungi dates back ,1; million years %<rdo#ician&, about the time
plants began to colonize the land.
/arliest fungi were probably auatic flagellated organisms. "ome of these flagellates then
e#ol#ed into ascomycetes and basidiomycetes. 4f they had an immediate common ancestor or
not is still being debated.
"e#eral genome pro3ects are being presently conducted in order to determine the 5:*
seuence that hopefully will clarify the phylogenetic relationship between the different fungal
phyla %:eil, +;;,&.
* hypothesis) Once again, all from evidence inferred from molecular sequence data, it appears
that eukaryotes and bacteria shared their last common ancestor around 2000 millions of years
ago. Plants, animals and fungi then began to diverge from one another in the region of 1000
millions of years ago. he important event to note here is that plants diverged first, thus fungi
and animals shared a common ancestor more recently than either did !ith plants. he
divergence of animals from fungi has been estimated at "#$ millions of years ago.%
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ARE MICROSPORIDIA C,OSE,Y RE,ATED TO FUNGI9
$icrosporidia are unicellular parasites of animals and protists.
They ha#e tiny organelles deri#ed from mitochondria.
5:* e#idence indicates that microsporidia may be an early(di#erging lineage of fungi.
THE MO.E TO ,AND
Fossils from the "ilurian period %,+; million years ago& contain e#idence of mycorrhizal relation
ships between land plants and fungi.
[Link] OF FUNGI
*bout 1;;, ;;; species are known and about 1,=;; new species are described e#ery year.
The total number of species is estimated to be about 1.- million.
>ith their phylogeny still to be clarified, the classification of fungi is based on the formation of
sporangia and their life cycles.
"tudy the life cycles of the different phyla.
Phy!#m Chy%(")"omyo%a %chytrids&.
Predominantly an auatic group) fresh water, a few in salt water, some terrestrial.
"ome species are pa(as"%" on algae, protozoa and other auatic fungi, and spores, pollen
and terrestrial plants. <ther species are sap(ophy%". The ?potato wart disease@ is caused
by a chytrid.
<ne class is unicellularA other three classes form mycelium.
<nly fungal group that produces motile reproducti#e cells) zoospo(es %ase!ual& and
gametes.
Protein and nucleic acid seuences support their inclusion in the kingdom Fungi in spite of
ha#ing motile spores, zoospores.
$ostly oenoy%" with a few septa at maturity that separates the reproducti#e organs.
'yphae of some chytrids ha#e pse#)osep%a) incomplete partitions made of substances
different from cell wall material.
Contain h"%"n in their cell wall, some contain cellulose as well.
2ametes could be similar %"so'ame%es& or different, one at least motile.
*bout 1;;; species.
:<T/) &ome ta'onomists consider the chytrids to be protists due to the production of motile
cells. hese scientists consider members of the (ungi those species that do not produce
motile spores.
*ccording to molecular data, some chytrids are more closely related to the zygomycetes than to
other chytrids.
Phy!#m :y'omyo%a %zygomycetes&
$ulticellular land fungi li#ing in the soil or decaying organic matter. $ostly sap(ophy%"
some pa(as"%" on plants and insects.
5i#ided into three to se#en classes according to different schemes of classification.
<ne group forms myo((h"zae with the roots of plants.
Coenoy%" mye!"#m with septa separating the reproducti#e structures.
*se!ual spores formed in sporangia.
"e!ual spores formed the fusion of hypha endings called gametangia. The fused tips
de#elop into a zy'ospo(an'"#m, which in turn will produce zy'ospo(es.
$ating types or strains reuired in some for con3ugation to occur) he%e(o%ha!!" species.
Ch"%"n in cell wallA no cellulose present.
*bout 1;; species described. The common bread mold is a zygomycete.
Phy!#m G!ome(omyo%a
This is a new clade. 4ts members were formerly assigned to the Bygomycota. 4t was created
by >alker and "chCssler in +;;1.
The group was separated from the zygomycetes because of differences in the genome and
in the formation of ase!ual spores %e.g. large multinucleate spores with se#eral wall layers.&
They form en)omyo((h"zae called a(*#s#!a( myo((h"zae) the tip of the hypha
branches and forms a small tree(like structure. They are o*!"'a%e sym*"on%s.
'yphae are aseptate.
Cell wall contains chitin, chitosan and polyglucuronic acid.
The #alidity of this group is uestioned by some mycologists.
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Phy!#m Asomyo%a %sac fungi&
$ulticellular or unicellular fungi.
Terrestrial fungi
Four classes recognized by many mycologists.
'yphae are narrower than the Bygomycota and are generally septate and m#!%"n#!ea%e).
Ch"%"n present in cell wallA cellulose absent.
*se!ual spores are conidia produced at a hypha tip, the on")"opho(e.
This phylum has a )"+a(yon in the ascogenous hyphae.
This phylum is characterized by a se!ual state composed of asospo(es within sac(like
as" %sing. ascus&.
'aploid mycelia form an%he(")"a %E& and aso'on"a %F&. Plasmogamy occurs between
them. Garyogamy is delayed.
The ascogonium gi#es rise to dikaryotic hyphae that are incorporated into the ascocarp.
The as" %sing. ascus& are contained within %or on& a #ariety of asoa(ps$
Garyogamy occurs within the asci.
4mportant parasites and saprophytes. Heasts are unicellular ascomycetes. $any edible
species. .ichens are a mutualistic association of an algae and a fungus. *bout half of the
ascomycetes are in#ol#ed in a lichen association or in mycorrhizae.
*bout 1;,;;; species described.
Phy!#m Bas")"omyo%a %club fungi&
$ulticellular fungi.
Terrestrial fungi.
Two or three classes are recognized.
>ell de#eloped mycelium
'yphae are narrower than the Bygomycota and typically septate.
Two phases in the life cycle) monokaryotic and a dikaryotic phases.
They ha#e a prolonged binucleate )"+a(yo%" s%a'e, which is maintained by use of
clamp connection.
"e!ual spores are called *as")"ospo(es$ Iasidiospores are produced through meiosis.
$eiotic basidiospores are formed e!ternally on the differentiated hyphal tips
%*as")"a&,which are usually the site of nuclear fusion and meiosis.
4mportant saprophytes and parasites. $any edible species. $ushrooms, puffballs, shelf
fungi, toadstools, rusts, smuts, stinkhorns, etc.
*bout +-,;;; species.
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$old is a rapidly growing, ase!ually reproducing fungus. 4t is not a technical term.
The se!ual stage is unknown in the deuteromycetes, the imperfectly known fungi.
$ost reproduce ase!ually by forming conidia.
5:* and 0:* studies support the idea that most are related to the ascomycetesA a few are
apparently related to the basidiomycetes.
ECO,OGY
1. $any fungi are saprophytic and play an important role in nutrient recycling and
decomposition of dead organic matter.
+. $ycorrhizae are mutualistic associations of fungi with the roots of plants.
The fungus supplies water and minerals and the plant pro#ides carbohydrates and other
organic compounds.
3. .ichens play an important role in soil formation.
SYMBIOSIS
Myo((h"zae are mutualistic associations between fungi and roots.
4t has been found in most culti#ated and wild plants including gymnosperms, ferns and mosses.
4t is thought that at least K;L of the angiosperm depends on mycorrhizae for their nutrition and
health.
The mustard family %Irassicaceae& and the sedge family %Cyperaceae& do not form
mycorrhizae.
Bygomycota, *scomycota and Iasidiomycota form mycorrhizae.
$utualism)
The host plant benefits by their increase ability to absorb water and minerals, specially
phosphorous, zinc, copper and manganese.
$ycorrhizal fungi protect the root of plant against attack by parasitic fungi and nematodes.
The fungus recei#es carbohydrates and other organic molecules synthesized by the plant.
"ome fungi are en)ophy%es, they li#e inside the lea#es or other plant parts without causing
harm to the plant.
Fungi also form associations with animals.
$any ants and termites raise fungi in ?farms@ where the fungi breakdown plant material
and produce a substance that the insects can digest.
Fungi may help to break down plant material in the guts of cattle and other grazing
animals.
,ICHENS
.ichen is a symbiotic association of a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium.
The fungus is most often an ascomycete.
The pho%o%(oph carries out photosynthesis and produces food for both members.
The fungus may pro#ide water, minerals and protection.
4t has been suggested lately that this is a case of controlled parasitism of the alga by the fungus.
.ichens ha#e three different growth forms) foliose, fruticose and crustose.
.ichens reproduce mainly by fragmentation of special units called so(e)"a, small clusters of
algae surrounded by hyphae.
<#er +-,;;; species ha#e been described.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
1. Food. $ushrooms, truffels and morels are used as food. Heasts are important in bread
making and brewing. "ome species are important in the making of cheeses and other foodstuff
like soysauce.
+. *ntibiotics. Fungi produce penicillin and other antibiotics. /rgot is used to produce certain
drugs.
3. 4ndustry. "ome fungi are used to make citric acid and other chemicals. 5:* manipulation of
fungi is being used to produce hormones.
,. Pathogens. $any species are pathogens of commercially important plants, e.g. wheat rust,
apple scab. "ome fungi cause animal diseases. 4n humans, ringworm is caused by fungiA fungi
cause athleteMs foot, candidiasis and histoplasmosis. Myos"s is the name gi#en to a fungal
infection.
0eferences)
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http)DDtolweb.orgDtreeQgroupR2lomeromycota
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