Project Management

Project Scheduling (I)

Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa
2
Project Scheduling: Outline
Scheduling process
Defining activities
Precedence relations among activities
Developing the network diagram
Exercise
Critical Path Method (CPM)
Exercises
3
Scheduling Process
Scheduling deals with estimating the durations for
all activities and developing a detailed project
schedule that states when each activity should start
and finish.
Includes two main stages:
(1) developing network diagram and
(2) network analysis using the CPM(Critical Path
Method) or PERT (Programme Evaluation and
Review Technique)
4
Defining Activities
Activity is a defined piece of work that consumes
time (duration time).
For projects in which a WBS is used, individual
activities can be defined by the person or team
responsible for work package.
When all the detailed activities have been defined for
each of the work pakages, the next step is to
determine the precedence relations among activities
and then graphically present them in a network
diagram.
5
Precedence Relations among activities
The schedule of activities is constrained by the
availability of resources required to perform each
activity and by technological constraints known as
precedence relations.
The most common, termed finish to start, requires
that activity can start only after its immediate
predecessor has been completed.
The three models used to analyze precedence
relations and their effect on the schedule are the
Gantt chart, CPM, and PERT. The last two are based
on network techniques.
6
Developing the Network Diagram
There are two different formats that can be used in
drawing the network diagram:
(1) Activity on the nodes (AON), and
(2) Activity on the arcs (AOA).
In AOA format, an activity is represented by an
arrow in the network.
Each activity is represented by one and only one
arrow. The tail of the arrow designates the start of
activity, and the head of the arrow represents the
completion of activity.
7
Developing the Network Diagram
In AOA format, activities (arcs) are linked by circles
(nodes) called events.
An event represents the finish of activities entering
into it and start of activities going out of it.
In the AOA format, each event is assigned a
unique number that is, no two events in the
network diagram can have the same event number.
Each activity (i,j) must have a unique
combination of predecessor (i) and successor (j)
event numbers that is, no two activities can be
identified by the same head and tail events.
8
Developing the Network Diagram
To help in the unique identification of activities sometimes is
needed to use a dummy activity, which consumes zero time
and is represented by dashed arrow in the network diagram.
To ensure the correct representation in the AOA diagram, the
following questions must be answered as each activity is
added to the network:
1. Which activities must be completed immediately before
this activity can start?
2. Which activities must immediately follow this activity?
3. Which activities must occur concurrently with this activity?
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Exercise
Draw a network diagram representing the following
logic: as the project starts activities A and B can be
performed concurrently. When activity A is finished,
activities C and D can start. When activity B is
finished, activities E and F can start. When activities
D and E are finished, activity G can start. The
project is complete when activities C, F and G are
finished.
Use the activity-on-arrow format.
10
Critical Path Method
From the network diagram, it is easy to see
the sequences of activities that connect the
start of the project to its terminal node.
The longest sequence is called the critical
path. It determines the total time required to
complete the project.
The total time required to perform all of
the activities on the critical path is the
minimum duration of the project.
11
Critical Path Method
In order to compute the critical path we have to calculate the
earliest and latest event times without causing a schedule
overrun.
The early time of an event i is determined by the longest
sequence from the start node (event 1) to event i.
To determine early time for each event i, a forward pass is
made through the network.
The latest time of each event is calculated next by making a
backward pass.
An activity (i,j) lies on the critical path if for i as well for j
early event time is equal to latest event time.
12
Critical Path Method
In addition to scheduling the events of a project, detailed
scheduling of activities is performed by calculating the
following four times for each activity:
ES = the erliest time when activity (i,j) can start without
violating precedence relations
EF = the erliest time when activity (i,j) can finish without
violating precedence relations
LS = the latest time when activity (i,j) can start without
delaying the completion of the project
LF = the latest time when activity (i,j) can finish without
delaying the completion of the project
Activities with total slack (LS-ES) = LF-EF = 0 are critical
13
Critical Path Procedure: Summary
Step 1 Develop a list of activities that make
up the project.
Step 2 Determine the immediate predecessor
activities for each activity in the
project.
Step 3 Estimate the completion time for each
activity.
Step 4 Draw a network depicting the activities and
immediate predecessors listed in steps 1-2.
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Critical Path Procedure: Summary
Step 5 Using the network and the activity time
estimates, determine the erliest time for each event
by making a forward pass through the project. The
earliest time for the last event identifies the total
time required to complete the project.
Step 6 Using the project completion time
identified in step 5 as the latest time for the last
event, make a backward pass through the network to
identify the latest time for each event.
15
Critical Path Procedure: Summary
Step 7 Using the information from steps 5 and 6
about early and latest time for each event, develop
the activity schedule for the project.
Step 8 Use the difference between the latest start
time and the erliest start time for each activity to
identify the slack time available for the activity.
Step 9 Find the activities with zero slack; these
are critical path activities.
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Exercises
Using the CPM identify the critical path and
develop the activity schedule for the project
depicted by network in previouse exercise.
Assume the activity time duration as follows:
A (2), B(5), C(8), D(7), E(8), F(10), G(6).
Draw a network diagram, find the critical path
and project completion time for Shopping
Center Project. Develop the activity schedule
for this project.
Zarzdzanie Projektami
Inicjacja projektu i selekcja
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa
18
Project initiation and selection:
Outline
Identification of needs
Development of alternatives
Project selection process
Project selection criteria
Project selection methods
Preparing Request For Proposal (RFP)
Questions and Exercises
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Identification of needs
Most projects are initiated by a need for a new
service, product, system, or other specified result.
A new need may be identified by customer, the
marketing department, any member of the
organization, or as a proposed request from an
outside organization.
A company`s management identifies a need, a
problem, or an opportunity for better way of
doing something and therefore sees some benefit to
undertaking a project that will result in an
improvement over the existing condition.
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Identification of needs: examples
Introducing a new product to the market
Developing a new office plan or layout
Designing an airplane
Opening a new store
Constructing a bridge or highway
Performing major maintenance or repair
Implementing quality ISO 9001 system
Producing and directing a movie
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Identification of needs
Needs, or problem identification is the initial phase
of the project life cycle (Project definition).
This may mean gathering data about the magnitude
of problem.
It is important to try to quantify the problemso as
to determine whether the expected benefits from
implementing a solution outweigh the costs or
consequences of conducting the project and, if so, by
how much.
22
Development of alternatives
If the need is considered important and feasible
solution exist, then the need is translated into
technical specifications.
Next, the study of an alternative approach may be
initiated.
Each alternative is described on the basis of a
predeterminated set of performance measures, and
the most promising are put on a candidate list.
After this, an effort is made to estimate the costs
and returns associated with the most suitable
candidates.
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Project selection
Sometimes the alternative opportunities may not
be similar, such as alternatives of new product
designs.
They could be very different, identifying often
different needs and all compete for a company`s
resources.
Project selection involves evaluating various needs
or opportunities, and then deciding which of these
should move forward as a project to be implemented.
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Project selection
The benefits and consequences, advantages and
disadvantages of each opportunity need to be
evaluated.
They can be both quantitative and qualitative,
tangible, and intangible.
Quantitative benefits could be financial, such as an
increase in sales or reduction of cost.
Intangible benefits, such as improving the company`s
public image or employee morale.
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Project selection process
Develop a set of criteria against which the opportunity will be
evaluated. These criteria will probably include both
quantitative and qualitative factors.
List assumptions that will be used as the basis for each
opportunity.
Gather data and information for each opportunity. For
example, it may be necessary to gather some preliminary
financial estimates and using the financial and economic
models to calculate simple payback, discounted cashflow, net
present value, internale rate of return, return of investment,
or life cycle costs associated with each opportunity (decision
alternative) being considered.
Evaluate each opportunity against the criteria.
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Project selection criteria: example
Alignment with company goals
Anticipated sales volume
Increase in market share
Establishment of new markets
Anticipated retail price
Investment required
Estimated manufacturing cost per unit
Technology development required
Return on investment
Human resources impact etc.
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Project selection methods
Checklists and scoring models. Of the several
techniques available, the most commonly used is
rating checklist. They are appropriate for
eliminating the most undesirable proposals from
further consideration.
In constructing a checklist, it is necessary to list the
evaluation criteria with space for comments and
rating box for each criterion. In the next step, a
(arbitrary) scoring scale is developed (such as High-
Medium-Low, 1 to 5, 1 to 10), to mesure how well a
project does with respect to each criterion.
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Project selection methods
Group decision-making. It is beneficial to have several individuals
involved in the evaluation and selection decision in order to get various
viewpoints.
Each person on the evaluation and selection team or committee should
have a different background and experiences to bring to the decision-
making process.
Each committee member should be provided with any data and
information that has been collected and analyzed. Before the entire
committee meets each member can individually asses the alternatives
against evaluation criteria.
Although it may take longer to gain group consensus on project
selection, it will increase the chance of making a better quality decision
than made by one individual.
Multiple criteria decision-making. It is recommended in some project
selection problems to be supported by use of MCDM methods and tools
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Preparing a Request For Proposal
Once the decision has been made regarding which
opportunity to pursue, the next step is to prepare a
request for proposal if it is expected that contractor
will be hired to perform the project.
If the project is going to be carried out by in-house
project team, then a document should be prepared
outlining the project requirements in a form similar
to what would be included in a RFP.
The purpose of RFP is to state, comprehensively and
in detail, what is required, from the customer`s
point of view, to address the indentified need.
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Preparing a RFP: guidelines
The RFP must provide a statement of work(SOW).
SOW deals with the scope of the project, outlining
the tasks or work elements the customer wants the
contractor or project team to perform.
The RFP must include the customer requirements,
which define specifications and attributes.
Requirements cover physical or operational
parameters the contractor`s proposed solution must
satisfy. Some requirements adress performance.
They may also be used as acceptance criteria by
customer.
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Preparing a RFP: guidelines
The RFP should state what deliverablesthe
customer expects the contractor or project team to
provide. Deliverables are the tangible items that
contractor is to supply. Deliverables could also
include periodic progress reports or a final report
that customer requires the contractor to provide.
The RFP should list any customer-supplied items.
The RFP might state the approvals required by the
customer.
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Preparing a RFP: guidelines
The RFP might state the payment termsthe
customer intends to use.
The RFP should state the deadlinefor completion of
the project.
The RFP should provide instructionsfor the format
and content of the contractor proposals.
The RFP should indicate the due dateby which the
customer expects potential contractors to submit
proposals.
33
Preparing a RFP: guidelines
The RFP may include the evaluation criteriathat the
customer will use to evaluate proposals from
competing contractors to select the one to perform
the project. Criteria might include following:
experience with similar projects, the technical
approach, the schedule, the cost.
In rare cases an RFP will indicate the funds the
customer has available to spend on the project.
Usually, the customer expects contractors to submit a
proposal that meets the requirements in the RFP at
the most reasonable cost.
34
Soliciting proposals
Once the RFP has been prepared, the customer solicits
proposals by notifying potential contractors that the RFP is
available.
One way for customers to do this is by identifying a selected
group of contractors in advance and sending each of them a
copy of the RFP.
Another approach to soliciting potential contractors is for
customer to advertise in certain business newspapers.
Not all project life cycles includethe preparation of a written
formal request for proposal and subsequent proposals from
contractors. Some endeavors move right from defining what
needs to be done into the project phase,where the project is
planned and performed to satisfy need.
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Questions and Exercises
Why is important to do a detailed job of needs identification?
Describe a situation in your life in which you performed
needs identifications.
Why is it important to select the right project before you
begin working?
Describe how a business selects which projects to work on
when there are numerouse projects that could be done.
Give examples of situation in which a business might develop
a request for proposal.
Give examples of situation in which an individual might
develop a request for proposal.
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Questions and Exercises
What should be contained in a statement of work?
What is meant by customer requirements? Why must they be
precise?
Why would a customer give contractors instructions in the
RFP to submit their proposals according to a standard format?
Develop an RFP for a real-world project such as landscaping
the grounds surrounding the University, building a deck for
your house, or holding a big graduation celebration. Be
creative in specifying your needs.
Locate a Web site that provides suggestions for developing
RFPs.
Zarzdzanie Projektami
Definiowanie projektu
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 38
Identifying Project Stakeholders
Interesariusze projektu i ich role
Kierownik projektu
Zesp projektowy
Kierownicy funkcjonalni
Sponsor projektu
Klient
Pytania i wiczenia
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 39
Project Stakeholders
Identyfikacja interesariuszy projektu jest
podstawowym zadaniem, poniewa wszystkie wane
decyzje w fazach definiowania i planowania projektu
s podejmowane przez tych uczestnikw projektu.
Kady kto uczestniczy w projekcie lub te rezultaty
projektu maj na niego wpyw jest interesariuszem
projektu (project stakeholder).
Mamy five primary stakeholders roles: project
manager, project team, functional management,
sponsor and customer.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 40
Project Manager
Kierownik projektu odgrywa wiodc rol w
projekcie.
Kierownik projektu powinien jasno okreli role
wszystkich interesariuszy, including his or her own.
Project manager primary task is satisfying the
stakeholders.
Wszystkie strony zaangaowane w projekcie s
zainteresowane jego sukcesem i kada ma w tym
istotny udzia: finansowanie, wsparcie kierownictwa,
organizacyjne, expertyzy odnonie wymaga ..,
all contributions are needed to ensure the success.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 41
Project Manager
Kierownik projektu jest jak kapitan, a realizacja
projektu jak eglowanie
Wie w kadej chwili gdzie jest i dokd zmierza
Jego zesp (zaoga) i pasaerowie ufaj mu
Minimalizuje niepewno
Zleca realizacj zada, ale odpowiedzialno ciy
na nim (delegacja zada, ale nie odpowiedzialnoci)
Zarzdza ryzykiem
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 42
Project Manager: zadania
Planowanie, recenzowanie, dostosowywanie,
poprawianie, analizowanie
Realizacja: terminw, budetu, celw
Bezporednie kierowanie prac zespou
Szkolenie, motywowanie zespou
Spenianie potrzeb i oczekiwa klienta
Komunikowanie si ze wszystkimi pozostaymi
interesariuszami projektu (kontakty)
Dokumentowanie
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 43
Project Manager: kontakty
Komitet Sterujacy (sponsor, inni czonkowie)
Zesp projektowy (podprojekty, Biuro Projektu)
Przedsibiorstwo (dziay: organizacyjny, finansowy,
techniczny, prawny, kontroli jakoci)
Klient (kierownicy, szeregowi pracownicy)
Wewntrzni dostawcy usug (projektanci,
konsultanci, administratorzy, obsuga techniczna)
Zewntrzni dostawcy usug i materiaw (dostawcy,
sprzedawcy, partnerzy, konsultanci)
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 44
Project Manager: umiejtnoci
Przywdcze, kierownicze
Podejmowania i przekazywania zrozumiaych
decyzji
Doboru waciwych osb
Trafnego przydziau prac
Egzekwowania realizacji zada
Rozwizywania konfliktw
Motywowania zespou i osb
Planowania wasnego czasu
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 45
Project Manager: cechy
Przywdcze, kierownicze
Konsekwencja, stanowczo ale i elastyczno
Zamiowanie do koczenia zada
Rozumienie celw dugo- i krtko terminowych
Wielka wyobrania
Dostpno, otwarto
Cierpliwo, wyrozumiao
jednym sowem:dyplomata, nauczyciel,
negocjator, lekarz,
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 46
Project Team
Wszyscy, ktrzy angauj swj czas, umiejtnoci i
wysiek na rzecz projektu i jego sukcesu s uwaani
za czonkw zespou projektowego (niezalenie od
osb przydzielonych w przedsibiorstwie do zada:
dostawcw, sprzedawcw, a nawet klientw).
Decydowanie o tym, kto bdzie czonkiem zespou
projektowego ma miejsce na starcie projektu, w fazie
definiowania i planowania.
Proces ten jest zakoczony z chwil akceptacji przez
wszystkich czonkw zespou swoich rl w projekcie
oraz zwizanych z nimi odpowiedzialnoci.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 47
Project Team: proces budowy zespou
Zadania w projekcie s dzielone i wyodrbniane wedug
kryterium specyfiki wymaganych umiejtnoci
Kierownik projektu i sponsor rozpoczynaj rekrutacj osb
(grup osb) z odpowiednimi skils
Kierownik projektu negocjuje z nowymi czonkami zespou
form pracy w zespole (part-time or temporary members and
core team)
Kierownik projektu wyjania zadania oraz plan prac i
upewnia si, e zosta waciwie zrozumiany
Obowizki i odpowiedzialnoci kadego czonka zespou s
dokumentowane w Statement of Work i w planie projektu
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 48
Project Team: stymulatory wydajnoci
Ciekawa, rozwijajca praca
Uznanie dla osigni
Dowiadczone kierownictwo projektu
Dobra znajomo technologii
Odpowiednie kwalifikacje czonkw zespou
Moliwo rozwoju zawodowego
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 49
Project Team: bariery
Niejasne cele projektu
Zmienno celw i priorytetw
Brak wystarczajcych zasobw
Brak dowiadczenia kierownika projektu
Konflikty personalne, walka o wadz
Brak zaangaowania kierownictwa
Za ochrona socjalna (groba utraty pracy po projekcie)
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 50
Functional Management
Kierownicy liniowi przedsibiorstwa realizujcego projekt
odgrywaj rwnie istotn rol (functional managers, first-
level supervisors, executive vice presidents).
Z wyjtkiem tzw. organizacji project-oriented, functional
managerss odpowiedzialni za poszczeglne obszary
funkcjonalne organizacji (techniczny, finansowy, wewntrzny
audit) i sprawuj dugoterminowy zarzd nad
pracownikami i innymi zasobami firmy.
Kierownik projektu musi cile wsppracowa z
kierownikami funkcjonalnymi aby pozyska najlepszych
ludzi do pracy z ich dziaw.
Kierownik projektu identyfikuje menederw przeoonych
pracownikw przydzielonych do zespou projektowego.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 51
Project Sponsor
Sponsor jest osob z formalnie ustanowion wadz,
osob, ktra jest odpowiedzialna za projekt (prezes,
senior executive or junior manager).
Sponsorzy nie sponsoruj projektu, oni sponsoruj
kierownika projektu oraz zesp projektowy
Rol sponsorw jest wspomaganie kierownika i
czonkw zespou w odniesieniu sukcesu (inny
termin opisujcy rol sponsora to champion)
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 52
Sponsor Duties
Wsparcie kierownika projektu edycj Karty Projektu - project charter
(formalne ogoszenie nazwy nowego projektu, jego celw oraz nazwiska
kierownika projektu)
Pomoc w opracowaniu macierzy odpowiedzialnoci - resposibility matrix
(ukazujcej udzia poszczeglnych interesariuszy w projekcie)
Przegld i zatwierdzenie statement of work(SOW opisuje misj, cele,
ograniczenia projektu oraz project management guidelines)
Doradzanie kierownikowi projektu i regularne omawianie stanu
zaawansowania projektu i sposobu rozwizywania problemw
Monitorowanie i podtrzymywanie priorytetu projektu w relacji do innych
realizowanych projektw
Pomoc w pokonywaniu organizacyjnych trudnoci i barier (np.
wynikajcych z nadmiernej biurokracji)
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 53
The Customer
Identifikacja klienta moe by trudna. Warto wprowadzi pojcie
uytkownika kocowego. W przypadku licznej grupy klientw
(uytkownikw kocowych) moe okaza si niejasnym who has the
authority to represent the group.
Kierownik projektu musi dokona rozrnienia pomidzy osobami
decyzyjnymi w sprawie wymaga projektu, a tymi, ktre powinny by
konsultowane w trakcie opracowywania realizacji wymaga i jeszcze
tymi, ktrzy powinni by poinformowani jakie te wymagania s.
Niekiedy,w przypadku zoonych projektw, ktrych produkty maj wielu
klientw/uytkownikw kocowych, kierownik projektu musi
wygenerowa odpowiednich customer representatives (rola dziau
marketingu)
W przypadku projektw sektora publicznego, kierownicy projektw
musz stosowa si do przepisw odnoszcych si do prac w projektach
publicznych; analogicznie w przypadku projektw PPP oraz
wspfinansowanych ze rodkw Unii Europejskiej.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 54
Questions
What is wrong in the sentence: It is the procedures
and techniques, not the people, that are critical to
accomplishing the project objective.
What is the ultimate responsibility of the project
manager?
What kind of contributions are needed to ensure the
project success?
What is the role of project sponsor?
Why it can be difficult to identify the customer?
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 55
Exercises
Using your favorite Web search engine (Yahoo, Google etc.) do a search
for project management. Explore at least five of the links that your
search produces. Give the Web address for each site and describe what it
contains.
Do several additional Web searches by adding, after the words project
management, some of the key words discussed at class. For example,
search for project management life cycle, project management process
and so one. What did you find?
Since it was founded in 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) has
grown to over 100 000 members world wide. It establishes standards,
develops educational programs, has a professional certification program
and has an excellent Web site for project management located at
[Link] Check out the information regarding memeberships,
certifications, education and publications.
Zarzdzanie Projektami
Podstawowe koncepcje
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 57
Project Management Concepts
Wprowadzenie
Projekt i jego atrybuty
Definicja projektu zakoczonego z sukcesem
Definicja zarzdzania projektami
Funkcje zarzdzania projektami
Cykl ycia projektu i jego odmiany
Pytania
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 58
Introduction
Korzyci pynce z zarzdzania projektami s tak rne, jak
rne s same projekty i odpowiedzialni za nie ludzie.
Tym co daje mi zadowolenie jest sprawienie, by klient naszej
firmy by w peni usatysfakcjonowany nie chodzi tylko o
spenienie jego oczekiwa, lecz o ich przewyszanie.
- Beth Chapman, kierownik projektu
Kiedy realizuj projekt, licz si dla mnie przede wszystkim
ludzie, ktrych zatrudniam do wsplnej pracy. Jestem bardzo
dumna z moich wsppracownikw.
- Jennifer Sargent, producentka filmowa
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 59
Introduction
Dla mnie najciekawsza jest prba stworzenia czego nowego.
- Timothy O`Meara, montaysta
Osobista satysfakcja moe mie rne oblicza, lecz wikszo
kierownikw zgadza si co do jednego: najwiksz wad
zarzdzania projektami jest konieczno koncentrowania
si na irytujcych szczegach.
Bardzo nie lubi nudy, ktra mnie ogarnia, kiedy pracuj nad projektem.
Musisz zna nawet najdrobniejsze szczegy, przedrze si przez setki
stron opisw kadego pojedynczego elementu budowli kadego
gwodzia, kadej rubki, kadej rynny, gontu i cegy. Musisz zapozna si
z instrukcjami na temat ich zastosowania i z metodami ich instalacji.
Przypomina to czytanie ksiki telefonicznej.
- Victor Ortale, architekt i projektant
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 60
Attributes of a project
Czym jest projekt?
Dlaczego potrzebujemy odrbn dyscyplin
zarzdzania projektami?
Aby odpowiedzie na te pytania, musimy zauway
fakt, e dziaania w dowolnym miejscu pracy mog
by podzielone na dwie grupy: jednorazowe projekty
i powtarzalne operacje/procesy.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 61
Attributes of a project
Wszystkie projekty maj dwie charakterystyki:
Kady projekt ma pocztek i koniec.
Zakoczenie projektu musi by jasno
zdefiniowane, w taki sposb, aby wszyscy
uczestnicy projektu byli zgodni co do tej
definicji.
Rezultatem kadego projektu jest unikalny
produkt. Rezultat ten moe by materialny
(tangible) lub niematerialny (intangible).
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 62
Attributes of a project
Projekty s unikalne i temporalne.
Powtarzalne operacje/procesy nie maj koca i
zwykle w ich efekcie powstaj podobne, a nawet
identyczne, produkty. Powtarzalne operacje/procesy
stanowi czsto podstawow dziaalno
przedsibiorstwa lub oddziau.
Praca, dziaalno, ktra ma charakter unikalny i
temporalny wymaga odrbnej dyscypliny w nauce
zarzdzania wymaga Zarzdzania Projektami.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 63
Attributes of a project
Projekt jest realizowany poprzez seri wzajemnie
powizanych zada czyli pewn, skoczon liczb
wyspecyfikowanych zada, ktre musz by wykonane w
okrelonej kolejnoci (sekwencji), aby osign cel projektu
(project objective).
Projekt wykorzystuje rnego rodzaju zasoby w celu
wykonania zada projektowych: zasoby ludzkie, know how,
organizacje, materiay, maszyny, urzdzenia i fundusze.
Projekt ma klienta indywidualnego lub instytucjonalnego,
ktry formuuje wymagania wzgldem rezultatu projektu i
dostarcza funduszy niezbdnych do jego zrealizowania.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 64
Attributes of a project
Projekt jest spojrzeniem w przyszo, rezultatem projektu
jest przewidywalna zmiana wszystkie organizacje
zmieniaj si w sposb cigy, powolny, ewolucyjny; w celu
przypieszenia wprowadzania zmian potrzebny jest projekt
(do zarzdzania zmianami)
Projekt jest realizowany w warunkach niepewnoci
wynika to z natury projektu (unikalno, niepowtarzalno)
oraz ze wzgldu na dziaania w przyszoci (do zarzdzania
ryzykiem i niepewnoci)
Projekt jako proces koncentruje si na zakresie, koszcie i
czasie
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 65
Definition of a successful project
On time. Produkt, rezultat projektu jest dostarczony
zgodnie z harmonogramem.
On budget. Koszt uytych zasobw nie przekracza
przewidzianego budetu.
High quality. Finalny produkt musi odznacza si
wysok jakoci. Jako wg Philipe`a Crosby, to
conformance to requirements. W kontekcie
zarzdzania projektami jako odnosi si do
rezultatu projektu, okrelonego przez zakres projektu
- project scope.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 66
Definition of a successful project
Cost, schedule, and quality koszt, czas i jako rezultatu, to
trzy podstawowe, wzajemnie zalene parametry projektu.
Dowolne dwa okrelaj trzeci, np. dostarczenie produktu tej
samej jakoci w krtszym czasie bdzie wicej kosztowa.
Project manager musi sterowa tymi zmiennymi w celu
okrelania optymalnego cost-schedule-quality equilibrium.
Sukces projektu punkt widzenia kierownika projektu i
punkt widzenia klienta
Sukces projektu realizacja potrzeb i oczekiwa
uytkownika kocowego we waciwym czasie, w ramach
okrelonego budetu z zapewnieniem trwaego zadowolenia
klienta.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 67
Project management definition
Zarzdzanie projektem to proces z pogranicza nauki
o zarzdzaniu oraz sztuki, polegajcy na
definiowaniu celui jego osiganiu poprzez
rwnoczesn realizacj, planowanie(lub powtrne
planowanie) prac prowadzcych do osignicia tego
celu, organizowaniezasobw i kierowanie
niezbdnym personelem, kontrol postpw prac i
zakoczenie wszystkich prac dla osignicia
wyznaczonego celu na czas i w ramach okrelonego
budetu.
- Milton Rosenau
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 68
Project management functions
Project definition. Kierownictwo projektu (project
manager, komitet sterujcy) musi okreli misj i
cele projektu oraz zidentyfikowa jego ograniczenia.
Definicja projektu musi by przedmiotem uzgodnie
pomidzy klientem a indywidualnym lub
instytucjonalnym wykonawc projektu.
Project planningsuy specyfikacji: jakie zadania
naley wykona, kto ma je wykona, jak dugo
bdzie to trwao i ile bdzie kosztowao. Efektem
tych prac jest tzw. baseline plan.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 69
Project management functions
Project control obejmuje czynnoci monitorowania
postpw realizacji projektu i dokonywania
niezbdnych interwencji w celu ukoczenia projektu.
Na czynnoci te skadaj si:
progress measurement,
communication,
correction action.
Wymienione funkcje okrelaj przedmiot
odpowiedzialnoci kierownika projektu -
responsibilities of project manager. Maj charakter
sekwencyjny i powtarzalny.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 70
Project life cycle
Project life cycle cykl ycia projektu opisuje
przebieg projektu w czasie. Standardowy PLC obejmuje
nastpujce cztery fazy:
1. Definiowanie projektu Define
2. Planowanie projektu Plan
3. Realizacja projektu Execute
4. Zamykanie projektu Close out
Naley podkreli wag dwch pierwszych faz definei
plan zwykle reprezentujcych 10% lub mniej caoci prac
projektowych, lecz zasadniczych dla przygotowania zespou
projektowego do efektywnego wykonawstwa projektu.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 71
Project life cycle
Kada faza ma swoje cele i czynnoci oraz
wymaga specyficznych narzdzi i
umiejtnoci.
Kierownik projektu musi zdefiniowa cele,
przygotowa zesp do podjcia dziaa oraz
we waciwy sposb wykorzystywa
narzdzia i umiejtnoci.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubala 72
Questions
Podaj definicj i przykady projektu.
Wymie przykady zasobw wykorzystywanych w projekcie.
Jak rol spenia klient w cyklu ycia projektu?
Ktre aspekty projektu mog charakteryzowa si
niepewnoci? Dlaczego?
Zdefiniuj scope, schedule, cost, and customer satisfaction.
Dlaczego traktowane s jako ograniczenia projektu?
Wymie i objanij gwne fazy w cyklu ycia projektu. Podaj
jego odmiany (projektu i cyklu) na przykadach.
Dlaczego niezbdne jest monitorowanie postpu prac
projektu? Co naley zrobi w sytuacji niezgodnoci realizacji
z planem?
Project Management
Project Control
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa
Project Control: Outline
Project Control process
Effects of actual schedule performance
Incorporating project changes into the
schedule
Updating the project schedule
Project management software
Questions
Project Control Process
Project management involves a proactive approach
to controlling a project to ensure that the project
objective is achieved even when things don`t go
according to plan.
Once the project starts, it is important to monitor
progress to ensure that every thing is going
according to schedule.
The key to effective project control is to measure
actual progress and compare it to planned
progress on a timely and regular basis and to take
necessary corrective actions immediately.
Project Control Process
The project control process involves regularly
gathering data on project performance, comparing
actual performance to planned performance, and
taking corrective actions if actual performance is
behind planned (see Flow-chart)
A regular reporting period should be established
for comparing actual progress with planned progress.
Reporting may be daily, weekly, biweekly, or
monthly, depending on the complexity or overall
duration of the project.
Project Control Process
During each reporting period, two kinds of data or
information need to be collected:
1. Data on actual performance:
- the actual time that activities were started and/or
finished
- the actual costs expended and committed
2. Information on any changes to the project scope,
schedule, or budget.
It is crucial that the data and information discussed
above be collected in a timely manner and used to
calculate an updated project schedule and budget.
Updating the Project Schedule
Actual progress - whether faster or slower than planned -
will have an effect on the schedule of the remaining,
uncompleted activities of the project.
The actual finish times (AFs) of completed activities will
determine the ES and EF for the remaining activities in the
network diagram, as well as the total slack.
Network-based planning and scheduling allows project
schedules to be dynamic. Because the network plan (diagram)
and schedule (tabulation) are separate, they are much easier to
update manually than a traditional Gantt chart.
Once data have been collected on the actual finish times of
completed activities, an updated project schedule is calculated
Updating the Project Schedule
The key to effective schedule control is to address
any paths with negative slack as soon as they are
identified. A concentrated effort to accelerate
project progress must be applied to these paths.
In order to accelerate the project progress we can
apply the crashing analysis,looking for acceptable
time-cost trade-offs.
When attempting to reduce the duration of a path of
activities that has negative slack, focus on activities
that are near term and on activities that have long
duration estimates.
Questions
Explain why it is important to monitor the progress of a
project continually.
Describe in your own words what is meant by the project
control process.
Why should a project have a regular reporting period? Should
all projects have the same reporting period? What types of
data should be collected during each reporting period?
If a project schedule needs to be ajusted, what trade-offs
might have to occur?
How are the network diagram and schedule updated after a
project is initiated and changes have been requested?
Project Management
Project Scheduling (I)
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa
82
Project Scheduling: Outline
Scheduling process
Defining activities
Precedence relations among activities
Developing the network diagram
Exercise
Critical Path Method (CPM)
Exercises
83
Scheduling Process
Scheduling deals with estimating the durations for
all activities and developing a detailed project
schedule that states when each activity should start
and finish.
Includes two main stages:
(1) developing network diagram and
(2) network analysis using the CPM(Critical Path
Method) or PERT (Programme Evaluation and
Review Technique)
84
Defining Activities
Activity is a defined piece of work that consumes
time (duration time).
For projects in which a WBS is used, individual
activities can be defined by the person or team
responsible for work package.
When all the detailed activities have been defined for
each of the work pakages, the next step is to
determine the precedence relations among activities
and then graphically present them in a network
diagram.
85
Precedence Relations among activities
The schedule of activities is constrained by the
availability of resources required to perform each
activity and by technological constraints known as
precedence relations.
The most common, termed finish to start, requires
that activity can start only after its immediate
predecessor has been completed.
The three models used to analyze precedence
relations and their effect on the schedule are the
Gantt chart, CPM, and PERT. The last two are based
on network techniques.
86
Developing the Network Diagram
There are two different formats that can be used in
drawing the network diagram:
(1) Activity on the nodes (AON), and
(2) Activity on the arcs (AOA).
In AOA format, an activity is represented by an
arrow in the network.
Each activity is represented by one and only one
arrow. The tail of the arrow designates the start of
activity, and the head of the arrow represents the
completion of activity.
87
Developing the Network Diagram
In AOA format, activities (arcs) are linked by circles
(nodes) called events.
An event represents the finish of activities entering
into it and start of activities going out of it.
In the AOA format, each event is assigned a
unique number that is, no two events in the
network diagram can have the same event number.
Each activity (i,j) must have a unique
combination of predecessor (i) and successor (j)
event numbers that is, no two activities can be
identified by the same head and tail events.
88
Developing the Network Diagram
To help in the unique identification of activities sometimes is
needed to use a dummy activity, which consumes zero time
and is represented by dashed arrow in the network diagram.
To ensure the correct representation in the AOA diagram, the
following questions must be answered as each activity is
added to the network:
1. Which activities must be completed immediately before
this activity can start?
2. Which activities must immediately follow this activity?
3. Which activities must occur concurrently with this activity?
89
Exercise
Draw a network diagram representing the following
logic: as the project starts activities A and B can be
performed concurrently. When activity A is finished,
activities C and D can start. When activity B is
finished, activities E and F can start. When activities
D and E are finished, activity G can start. The
project is complete when activities C, F and G are
finished.
Use the activity-on-arrow format.
90
Critical Path Method
From the network diagram, it is easy to see
the sequences of activities that connect the
start of the project to its terminal node.
The longest sequence is called the critical
path. It determines the total time required to
complete the project.
The total time required to perform all of
the activities on the critical path is the
minimum duration of the project.
91
Critical Path Method
In order to compute the critical path we have to calculate the
earliest and latest event times without causing a schedule
overrun.
The early time of an event i is determined by the longest
sequence from the start node (event 1) to event i.
To determine early time for each event i, a forward pass is
made through the network.
The latest time of each event is calculated next by making a
backward pass.
An activity (i,j) lies on the critical path if for i as well for j
early event time is equal to latest event time.
92
Critical Path Method
In addition to scheduling the events of a project, detailed
scheduling of activities is performed by calculating the
following four times for each activity:
ES = the erliest time when activity (i,j) can start without
violating precedence relations
EF = the erliest time when activity (i,j) can finish without
violating precedence relations
LS = the latest time when activity (i,j) can start without
delaying the completion of the project
LF = the latest time when activity (i,j) can finish without
delaying the completion of the project
Activities with total slack (LS-ES) = LF-EF = 0 are critical
93
Critical Path Procedure: Summary
Step 1 Develop a list of activities that make
up the project.
Step 2 Determine the immediate predecessor
activities for each activity in the
project.
Step 3 Estimate the completion time for each
activity.
Step 4 Draw a network depicting the activities and
immediate predecessors listed in steps 1-2.
94
Critical Path Procedure: Summary
Step 5 Using the network and the activity time
estimates, determine the erliest time for each event
by making a forward pass through the project. The
earliest time for the last event identifies the total
time required to complete the project.
Step 6 Using the project completion time
identified in step 5 as the latest time for the last
event, make a backward pass through the network to
identify the latest time for each event.
95
Critical Path Procedure: Summary
Step 7 Using the information from steps 5 and 6
about early and latest time for each event, develop
the activity schedule for the project.
Step 8 Use the difference between the latest start
time and the erliest start time for each activity to
identify the slack time available for the activity.
Step 9 Find the activities with zero slack; these
are critical path activities.
96
Exercises
Using the CPM identify the critical path and
develop the activity schedule for the project
depicted by network in previouse exercise.
Assume the activity time duration as follows:
A (2), B(5), C(8), D(7), E(8), F(10), G(6).
Draw a network diagram, find the critical path
and project completion time for Shopping
Center Project. Develop the activity schedule
for this project.
Project Management
Project Planning
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa
Project planning: Outline
Planning process
Defining the project objective
Developing a Work Brakedown Structure:
WBS in tree form
WBS in outline form
Three criteria of successful WBS
Using WBS in project management activities
Responsibility matrix
Questions and Exercises
The planning process
I keep six honest serving men,
(They taught me all I knew)
Their names are What and Why and When
And How and Where and Who. RUDYARD KIPLING
Like Kipling`s honest serving men, the plan contains the
what, who, and when of the project.
Planning is the systematic arrangement of tasks to accomplish
an objective. Starts in project definition (Statement of Work).
The plan becomes a benchmark against which actual
progress can be compared, and if deviations occur, corrective
actions can be taken.
Defining the project objective
The first step in the planning process is to define the project
objective the expected result or end product, clearly
defined and agreed upon by the customer and the
organization or contractor that will perform the project.
The objective must be SMART:
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Recognizable by both the customer and the contractor
Tangible end product.
The objective is usually defined in terms of scope,
schedule, and cost.
Any changes to the initial project objective might affect the
work scope, completion date and final cost
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
The next step in the planning process is to determine what
work elements, or activities, need to be performed to
accomplish the project objective.
WBS is the tool for breaking down a project into its
componenet parts work items. It is the foundation of
project planning and one of the most important techniques
used in project management.
WBS uses outputs from project definition stage and identifies
all the tasks in project; sometimes is referred to as a task list.
WBS can be set up in either graphic (chart) or outline form.
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS):
the chart (tree) form
The graphic structure it is the hierarchical tree of
end items that will be accomplished or produced
during the project.
Not all branches of the WBS have to be broken
down to the same level (see example of the WBS for
Festival Project).
The lowest level item of any one branch is called a
work package.
The WBS usually indicates the organization or
individual responsible for each work item.
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS):
the outline form
Home landscape project
1.0. Design home landscape Work package
2.0. Put in lawn
2.1. Acquire lawn material
2.2. Install sprinkler system
2.2.1. Identify sprinkler locations
2.2.2. Dig trenches
2.2.3. Install pipe and hardware
2.2.4. Cover sprinkler system
2.3. Plant grass Summary task
2.3.1. Remove debris
2.3.2. Prepare soil (fertilize, rake) Work packages
2.3.3. Plant lawn seed
2.4. Plant shrubs
3.0. Build fence Summary task
3.1. Acquire fence material
3.2. Construct the fence Summary task
3.2.1. Mark fence line and posts
3.2.2. Install posts
3.2.3. Install fencing and gates
3.2.4. Paint fence
Note that a summary task is not executed, it is a summarization of the subordinate work [Link] work packages are the ones that are
executed.
Developing work breakdown structure:
three criteria for successful WBS
The WBS must be broken down starting at the
top. It is a top-down decomposition. You need to
make sure your work packages are subsets of your
summary tasks.
Work packages must add up to the summary
task. Altogether, these subordinate tasks should
produce the outcome named by summary task.
Each summary task and work package must be
named as an activity that produce a product.
Without these task becomes ambiguouse (open-
ended tasks e.g. perform analysis).
Using a work breakdown structure in
project management activities
WBS helps to:
Provide a detailed illustration of project scope
(the statement of work defines scope at the
conceptual level);
Monitor progress (the tasks on the WBS are
mesurable units of work);
Create accurate basis for schedule and cost
estimates;
Build project teams (every team member wants
clear work assigments and a sense of how his or her
work fits into the overall effort).
Resposibility Matrix
The responsibility matrix is a method used to
display, in tabular format, the individuals
responsible for accomplishing the work items
in the WBS (see the resposibility matrix
associated with the WBS for Festival Project).
Some resposibility matrices use P to designate
primary resposibility for each work item, and
S to indicate support responsibility for a
specific work item.
Questions
What is meant by planning the project? What does it
encompass? Who should be involved in planning the
work?
What is meant by term project objective? Give two
examples of clearly written project objectives.
What is a work breakedown structure? What are the
WBS form of presenttion? What are the criteria of
successful WBS?
Describe the WBS role in project management.
Exercises
Transform the WBS for Home landscape
project into tree (chart) form
Transform the WBS for Festival project into
outline form
Project Management
Organizing for a project
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 110
Organizing for a project: Outline
The project manager:
- responsibilities of the project manager
- skills of the project manager
The project team development and effectiveness:
- handling conflicts
- problem solving; brainstorming
Project communication and documentation
Types of project organizations
Questions and Exercises
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 111
Project manager: responsibilities
Project manager provides leadership to the project team in:
- planning,
- organizing, and
- controlling the work effort to accomplish the project goals.
The ultimate resposibility of the project manager is to make
sure that customer is satisfied that the work scope is
completed:
- in a quality manner,
- within budget, and
- on time.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 112
Project manager: responsibilities
Project manager assigns responsibility and
delegates authority to specific individuals or
subcontractors for the various tasks.
By involving the project team in developing the
project plan, the project manager ensures a more
comprehensive plan and gains the commitment of
the team to achieve the plan.
Successful project managers are proactive in
addressing problems. They don`t take a let`s wait
and see how things work out approach.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 113
Project manager: skills and abilities
Effective project managers have strong leadership ability,
the ability to develop people, excellent communication skills,
good interpersonal skills, the ability to handle stress,
problem-solving skills, and time management skills.
Successful project management requires a participative and
consultative leadership style in which the project manager
provides guidance and coaching to the project team.
The effective project manager does not tell people how to do
their jobs, rather should empower them to make decisions
within their assigned areas of responsibility.
Project leadership requires involvement and empowerment
of the project team.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 114
Project manager: skills and abilities
Project manager show that he or she values the contribution
of each team member by seeking advice and suggestions,
also encourages team members to seek advice from one
another.
Project manager can foster motivation through recognition.
People want to feel they are making contribution and need to
be recognized. Positive reinforcement helps stimulate desired
behaviour; behaviour that is recognized or rewarded gets
repeated.
Capable project managers are highly motivated, optimistic
and have high, but realistic, expectations of themselves and
each person on the project team.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 115
Project manager: skills and abilities
Project should be fun. Project managers should enjoy their
work and encourage the same positive attitude on the part of
the project team members.
A good project manager provides opportunities for learning
and development by encouraging team members to take
initiative, take risks, and take decisions. Rather than create a
fear of failure, the project manager realizes that mistakes are
part of the learning and growht experience.
Good project managers spend more time listening than
talking. They listen to the needs expressed by the customer
and the ideas and concerns expressed by the project team.
Project managers need to be good delegators.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 116
Project team: stages of development
A teamis a group of individuals working interdependently to achieve a common
goal.
Teamwork is cooperative effort by members of a team to achieve that common
goal.
B.W. Tuckman has defined four stages of team development:
FORMING the group attempts to define and plan the tasks that need to be done;
the team needs direction and structure.
STORMING members start to apply their skills to work on their assigned tasks,
conflict emerges and tensions increases.
NORMING relationships among team members and between the team and the
project manager have become settled; interpersonal conflicts have been resolved
for the most part; control and decision making are transferred from the project
manager to the project team.
PERFORMING the team is highly committed and eager to achieve the project
objective; confidence is high, communication is open and frank; the team feels
fully empowered; as problems are identified, appropriate subteams are formed to
solve the problems; the project manager fully delegates resposibility and authority.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 117
Effective project team: characteristics
Clear understanding of the project objective
Clear expectations of each person`s role and
responsibilities
Results orientation
High degree of cooperation and collaboration
High level of trust
The effectiveness-or lack there of- of the project team
can make the difference between success and project
failure.
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 118
Project team: barriers to effectiveness
Unclear goals
Unclear definition of roles and responsibilities
Lack of project structure (role of tools)
Lack of commitment
Poor communication
Poor leadership
Turnover of project team members
Dysfunctional behaviour
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 119
Conflict on projects: sources
Work scope
Resources assigment
Schedule
Cost
Priorities
Organizational issues
Personal differences
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 120
Conflict on projects: handling
Avoiding or withdrawing approache
Competing or forcing (win-lose situation)
Accommodating or smoothing
Compromising (search for intermediate
position)
Collaborating, confronting, or problem
solving (search for win-win outcome)
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 121
Types of project organization
Functional-type organization: individuals continue to
perform their regular functional job while they serve part-
time on the project task force; one of them is designated as
project leader or manager
Project-type organization: each project team is dedicated to
only one project; people are hired to work on a specific
project; each project is operated like mini-company; a full-
time project manager has complete project and administrative
authority
Matrix-type organization: kind of hybride a mix of both
the functional and project organization structures; the project
manager is responsible for the project results, while the
functional managers are responsible for providing resources
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 122
Questions and Exercises
Discuss some of the problems that might be
encountered when a functional-type organization
develops new product.
Why is a project-type organization considered to be
like a mini-company?
Which organization structure is considered to be a
hybrid? Why?
What are the responsibilities of the functional
manager in matrix-type organization?
Ewa Konarzewska-Gubaa 123
Questions and Exercises
What are the responsibilities of the project
manager in a matrix-type organization?
Search the Web for functional organization
structures. Summarize at least one Web site
and compare it to what was presented. What
new insights did you get from Web?
Do the same research for matrix organization.