Metal Forming Defects

Defects in Rolled Plates and Sheets

Defects may be present on the surfaces of rolled
plates and sheets, or there may be internal
structural defects.
Defects are undesirable not only because they
compromise surface appearance, but also
because they may adversely affect strength,
formability, and other manufacturing
characteristics.
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Defects in Rolled Plates and Sheets
1. Wavy edges
2. Zipper cracks
3. Edge cracks
4. Alligatoring


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(a) Wavy edges
(b) Zipper cracks in the
centre of the strip
(c) Edge cracks
(d) Alligatoring
1. Wavy edges
Wavy edges on sheets are the result of roll
bending. The strip is thinner along its edges than
at its center ; thus, the edges elongate more than
the center.
Consequently, the edges buckle because they are
constrained by the central region from expanding
freely in the longitudinal (rolling) direction.
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2., 3. Zipper & Edge cracks
The cracks shown in Fig are usually the result of
poor material ductility at the rolling temperature.
Because the quality of the edges of the sheet
may affect sheet-metal-forming operations, edge
defects in rolled sheets often are removed by
shearing and slitting operations
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4. Alligatoring
Alligatoring is a complex phenomenon and
typically is caused by non uniform bulk
deformation of the billet during rolling or by the
presence of defects in the original cast material.
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Extrusion Defects
There are three principal extrusion defects:
1. Surface cracking
2. Pipe
3. Internal cracking
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1. Surface cracking
If extrusion temperature, friction, or speed is too
high, surface temperatures can rise significantly,
which may cause surface cracking and tearing.
These defects occur especially in aluminum,
magnesium, and zinc alloys.
This situation can be avoided by lowering the
billet temperature and the extrusion speed.

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1. Surface cracking
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1. Surface cracking
Surface cracking also may occur at lower
temperatures, where it has been attributed to
periodic sticking of the extruded product along
the die land.
Because of the similarity in appearance to the
surface of a bamboo stem, it is known as a
bamboo defect.
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2. Pipe
The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion shown in
Fig tends to draw surface oxides and impurities
toward the centre of the billet-much like a funnel.
This defect is known as pipe defect, tailpipe, or
fishtailing.
As much as one-third of the length of the extruded
product may contain this type of defect and thus has
to be cut off as scrap.
Piping can be minimized by modifying the flow
pattern to be more uniform, such as by controlling
friction and minimizing temperature gradients.
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2. Pipe
Another method is to machine the billets surface
prior to extrusion, so that scale and surface
impurities are removed.
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3. Internal Cracking
The centre of the extruded product can develop
cracks, called centre cracking, centre-burst,
arrowhead fracture, chevron cracking.
The tendency for centre cracking (a) increases
with increasing die angle, (b) increases with
increasing amount of impurities, and(c)
decreases with increasing extrusion ratio and
friction.
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3. Internal Cracking
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Forging Defects
Defects can develop during forging as a result of
the material flow pattern in the die.
If there is an insufficient volume of material to fill
the die cavity completely, the web may buckle
during forging and develop laps
If the web is too thick, the excess material flows
past the already formed portions of the forging
and develops internal cracks.
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Laps
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Laps formed
by web
buckling
during
forging; web
thickness
should be
increased to
avoid this
problem
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Internal
cracks
Internal defects
caused by an
oversized billet.
Die cavities are
filled
prematurely,
and the
material at the
centre flows
past the filled
regions as the
dies close.
DEFECTS IN DRAWING
Sheet-metal drawing is a more complex
operation than cutting or bending, and more
things can go wrong.
A number of defects can occur in a drawn
product, some of which we have already alluded
to.
Following is a list of common defects, with
sketches in Figure.
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DEFECTS IN DRAWING
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DEFECTS IN DRAWING
a) Wrinkling in the flange . Wrinkling in a drawn
part consists of a series of ridges that form
radially in the undrawn flange of the workpart
due to compressive buckling.
b) Wrinkling in the wall. If and when the wrinkled
flange is drawn into the cup, these ridges
appear in the vertical wall.

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DEFECTS IN DRAWING
c) Tearing . Tearing is an open crack in the vertical
wall, usually near the base of the drawn cup,
due to high tensile stresses that cause thinning
and failure of the metal at this location. This
type of failure can also occur as the metal is
pulled over a sharp die corner.
d) Earing . This is the formation of irregularities
(called ears ) in the upper edge of a deep drawn
cup, caused by anisotropy in the sheet metal. If
the material is perfectly isotropic, ears do not
form.

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DEFECTS IN DRAWING
e) Surface scratches . Surface scratches can occur
on the drawn part if the punch and die are not
smooth or if lubrication is insufficient.
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