Tata McGraw-Hill INA Control Systems Principles and Design Second EditionTata McGraw-Hill Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. © 2002, 1997, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited Eighth reprint 2006 RALYYRBKROZRY No part of this publication can be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the publishers This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited ISBN 0-07-048289-6 Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, Typeset at Script Makers 19, AL-B DDA Market, Pashchim Vihar, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at Sai PrintOPack Y-56, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-II, New Dethi-110020. Cover: De Unique Lhe MeGraw-Hil Comparios |Preface to the Second Edition vi Preface to the First Edition ix 2.10 Models of Thermal Systems 98 2.11 Models of Hydraulic Systems 107 2.12 Obtaining Models from Experimental Data. -JJ3 °°)». 2.13 Systems with Dead-time Elements J/4 ~ 2.14 Loading Effects in Interconnected Systems "7 Copyrighted materialContents Review Examples _120 Review Questions 130 Problems 131 Models of Industrial Contro! Devices and Systems 141 3.1 Introduction 14] 3.2 Generalized Block Diagram of a Feedback System 142 3.3 Block Diagram Manipulations 144 3.4 Signal Flow Graphs and the Mason's Gain Rule 150 3.5 DC and AC Motors in Control Systems 159 3.6 Motion Control Systems _ 175 3.7_Hydraulic Devices for Motion Control 193 3a P ic Devices for P Control 203 Review Examples 211 Review Questions 219 Problems 222 Basic Principles of Feedback Control 237 4.1 Introduction 237 4.2 The Control Objectives 241 4.3 Feedback Control System Characteristics 251 4.4 Proportional Mode of Feedback Control 264 4.5 Integral Mode of Feedback Control 267 4.7__Alternative Control Configurations _ 276 4.8 Multivariable Control Systems _ 280 Review Examples 283 Review Questions 290 Problems 292 Concepts of Stability and the Routh Stability Criterion 305 5.1 Introduction 305 5.2__Bounded-input Bounded-output Stability 307 5.3 Zero-input Stability 3/3 5.4 The Routh Stability Criterion 3/4 5.5 Stability Range for a Parameter 327 Review Examples 329 Review Questions 332 Problems 333 . The Performance of Feedback Systems a7 6.1 Introduction 337 6.2__The Performance Specifications 3391 Contents a 6.3 Response of a Standard Second-order System 343 6.5 Desired Closed-Loop Pole Locations and the Domi -Conditi 263 6.6 Steady-state Error Constants and System-type Number 366 6.7 __Introduction-to Design and Compensation _37/ Review Examples 382 Review Questions 390 Problems 392 Compensator Design Using Root Locus Plots 404 71 Introduction 404 7.2 The Root Locus Concept 405 7.3_Guidelines for Sketching Root Loci 4/8 7.5__Reshaping the Root Locus 443 7.6 Cascade Lead Compensation 455 7.7__Cascade Lag Compensation 463 7.8 Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation 468 7.9__Minor-Loop Feedback Compensation 472 7.10 Compensation for Plants with Dominant Complex Poles 477 7.11 The Root Locus of Systems with Dead-Time 483 7.12 Sensitivity and the Root Locus 487 Review Examples 492 Review Questions 501 Problems 502 The Nyquist Stability Criterion and Stability Margins 513 &.1 Introduction 5/3 8.2 Development of the Nyquist Criterion 5/7 8.3 Selected Illustrative Nyquist Plots 526 8.4 Stability Margins 536 8.5 The Bode Plots 544 8.6 Stability Margins on the Bode Plots 563 8.7_ Stability Analysis of Systems with Dead-Time 566 8.8 Frequency Response Measurements 57] Review Examples 577 Review Questions 583 Problems 584Contents 9. Feedback System Performance Based on the Frequency Response 593 9.1 Introduction _593 9.2 Performance Specifications in Frequency Domain 596 9.3 Correlation between Frequency-domain and Time-domain Specifications 598 9.4 Constant-M Circles 608 9.5 The Nichols Chart 6/4 9.6 Sensitivity Analysis in Frequency Domain Review Examples 626 Review Questions 629 Problems 630 10. Compensator Design Using Bode Plots 638 10.1 Introduction _63& 10.2 Reshaping the Bode Plot 639 10.3 Cascade Lead Compensation 649 10.4 Cascade Lag Compensation 662 10.5 Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation 670 10.6 Robust Control Systems 675 Review Examples 682 Review Questions 688 Problems 689 11, Hardware and Software Implementation of Common Compensators 694 LL Introduction 694 11.2 Passive Electric Networks 695, 11.3 Operational Amplifier Usage 705 11.4 Use of Digital Computer as a Compensator Device 708 11.5 Configuration of the Basic Computer-control Scheme 710 11.6 Principles of Signal Conversion 71/2 11.7 Digital Implementation of Analog Compensators 716 1.8 Tunable PID Controllers _728 11.9 Ziegler-Nichols Methods for Controller Tuning 749 Review Examples 761 Review Questions 764 Problems 766 12. Control System Analysis Using State Variable Methods 773 12.1 Introduction 773 12.2 Matrices 774Contents xvii 12.3 State Variable Representation 719 24 C isa State Wart L Transfer Functions BS 25 ion of Transfer Functi Genoa State Variable Models CIO: 12.6 Solution of State Equations 804 12.7 Concepts of Controllability and Observability 813 12.8 Equivalence between Transfer Function and State Variable Representations 823 Review Examples 828 Review Questions 835 Problems 837 Appendix A: Mathematical Background 846 A.1 Introduction 846 A.2 Functions of aComplex Variable 846 A3 Laplace Transforms 854 A4 Table of Transforms 859 Appendix B: MATLAB Environment 861 Appendix C: Control Theory Quiz 898 References 929 Companion Book 938 Answers to Problems 942 Index 961chapter Introduction to the Control Problem 11] CONTROL SYSTEMS: TERMINOLOGY AND BASIC STRUCTURE In recent years, control systems have assumed an increasingly important role in the development and advancement of modern civilization and technology. Practically every aspect of our day-to-day activities is affected by some type of control system. A bathroom toilet tank is a control system. A home-heating system, a reftigerator, an air-conditioner, and an automobile are all control systems. Control systems are indispensable in modern industrial processes. We find control systems in all sectors of industry, such as quality control of manufactured products, automatic assembly line, machine-tool control, space technology and weapon systems, transportation systems, power systems, robotics, and many others. Even such problems as inventory control, and socio-economic systems control may be approached from the theory of feedback control. In this book we will deal with the control of engineering systems that are governed by the laws of physics and are therefore called physical systems. In control parlance, the system to be controlled is given various names: process, plant, and controlled system being perhaps the most common. In the so-called process industries (chemicals, petroleum, steam power, fuel, etc.). one repeatedly encounters the need to control temperature, flow rate, liquid- level in vessels, pressure; humidity, chemical composition, and the like; such applications are generally considered process control applications. Historically, the wide practical application of control first took place in the process area. Most of the basic concepts were developed and brought to successful realiza- tion by the intuitive and experimentally-oriented engineering methods typical of the 1900 to 1940 era.2 Control Systems: Principles and Design Around the time of the Second World War, the technical needs of military systems—automatic airplane pilots, gun-positioning systems, radar antenna control systems, and the like—led to more scientific approaches in the control engineering field. A comprehensive mathematical theory—the theory of servo- mechanism'—aimed mainly at applications wherein the need is to control me- chanical motions (position, velocity, or acceleration), was developed around 1940 to 1950. Since this time, the design methods of the process-control area, and the servomechanism area have gradually converged. The terminology of the two areas is also converging. The word ‘process’ is now in use for all types of controlled systems. Also, irrespective of the area of application, the word *servomechanism’ (or servo system) is used for a command following system wherein the controlled attribute of the system is required to follow a given command. Figure 1.1 shows the input-output configuration of a process (or plant). Process outputs are the response variables which we require to behave in some specified fashion. Process inputs are flows of energy and/or material that cause the process to react or respond. The inputs are classified into manipulated inputs (subject to our control) and disturbance inputs (undesirable and una- voidable effects beyond our control, generated from outside process-environ- ment, and from within). The presence of the disturbance is one of the main reasons of using control. Clever management of manipulated variables so as to counteract the effects of disturbances is the primary role of the controller. Figure 1.2 shows the input-output configuration of a control system. Disturbance input | | Manipulated Process |» Response input variable Fig. 1.1 Process input-output configuration Disturbance Friel aShe Cet el ecorse ees Command | Manipulated 1 _, Controlled 1 | input | variable eet Controller Le Process | 7 output é “ | l Aa . Fig. 1.2. Input-ousput configuration of a control system 1, Thé word! 'servomechanism’ originated from the words servant (or slave) and mechanism.