Environment protection (Indian Constitution articles Jan 07, 2014

The State's responsibility with regard to environmental protection has been laid down under Article 48-A of our Constitution, which reads as follows: "The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country". Environmental protection is a fundamental duty of every citizen of this country under Article 51-A(g) of our Constitution which reads as follows: "It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures." Article 21 of the Constitution is a fundamental right which reads as follows: "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law." Article 48-A of the Constitution comes under Directive Principles of State Policy and Article 51 A(g) of the Constitution comes under Fundamental Duties. The State's responsibility with regard to raising the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health has been laid down under Article 47 of the Constitution which reads as follows: "The State shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties and, in particular, the State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health." The 42nd amendment to the Constitution was brought about in the year 1974 makes it the responsibility of the State Government to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. The latter, under Fundamental Duties, makes it the fundamental duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures. The subjects related to environment in the seventh schedule of the Constitution: Industries; Regulation and development of oil fields and mineral oil resources; Regulation of mines and mineral development; Regulation and development of inter-State rivers and river valleys;Fishing and fisheries beyond territorial waters;' Forests; Protection of wild animals and birds,etc. As conferred by Article 246(1), while the Union is supreme to make any law over the subjects enumerated in List I, the States, under Article 246 (3), enjoy competence to legislate on the entries contained in List II, and both the Union and the States under Article 246(2) have concurrent jurisdiction on entries contained in List III. In the event of a clash, the Union enjoys a primacy over States in that its legislation in the Union and the Concurrent List prevails over State legislations. Also, the Parliament has residuary powers to legislate on any matter not covered in the three Lists (Art. 248). The third tier of government was introduced in the Indian Constitution by the 73rd and 74th Amendment in 1992. The third tier is the local government at rural and urban areas. Rural local governments are called Panchayats and they have been constituted at district, block, and village levels. The urban local governments are the municipal corporations, municipalities and for smaller towns, Nagarapalikas. These already existed in some states, and after the amendments, these local bodies were conferred the constitutional status. The eleventh and twelfth schedules to the constitution list the subjects to be devolved to the rural and urban local governments respectively, but these are carried out concurrently with the state governments. The environmental functions listed for the rural local governments include land improvement, land consolidation and soil conservation, minor irrigation, water management and watershed development, fisheries, social forestry and farm forestry, minor forest products, drinking water, fuel and fodder non-conventional energy sources and maintenance of community assets. For urban local bodies,the list includes subjects like water supply for domestic, industrial, and commercial purposes; public health, sanitation, conservancy and solid waste management; and urban forestry, protection of the environment and promotion of ecological aspects, provision of urban amenities and ,facilities such as parks, gardens, and playgrounds are listed.

CONVENTION ON MIGRATORY SPECIES 1979

Dec 30, 2013

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (also known as the Bonn Convention) aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range. The Convention facilitates the adoption of strict protection

measures for endangered migratory species, the conclusion of multilateral agreements for the conservation and management of migratory species, and co-operative research activities. The parties to the Convention acknowledge the importance of conserving migratory species thus objectives of the convention are: To avoid any migratory species becoming endangered, the parties will take steps: to promote, cooperate in or support research relating to migratory species; to provide immediate protection for migratory species included in Appendix I; and to conclude Agreements covering the conservation and management of migratory species listed in Appendix II. To protect endangered migratory species, the parties will endeavour: to conserve or restore the habitats of endangered species; to prevent, remove, compensate for or minimise the adverse effects of activities or obstacles that impede the migration of the species; and to the extent feasible and appropriate, to prevent, reduce or control factors that are endangering or are likely to further endanger the species. Within the convention there are a number of agreements covering specific migratory species, including: EUROBATS Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe, concluded in September 1991. Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas, 1991. African-Eurasian Water bird Agreement (AEWA), 1995. Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS), 1996. Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, 2001. The Convention has two appendices: Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed on Appendix I of the Convention. CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. Besides establishing obligations for each State joining the Convention, CMS promotes concerted action among the Range States of many of these species. Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from international co-operation are listed in Appendix II of the Convention. For this reason, the Convention encourages the Range States to conclude global or regional Agreements.

National Water Policy 2013 Jan 28, 2014

The Ministry of Water Resources has formulated the Draft National Water Policy (2012). Salient features of the policy are : 1. Emphasis on the need for a national water framework law, comprehensive legislation for optimum development of interState rivers and river valleys, amendment of Irrigation Acts, Indian Easements Act, 1882, etc. 2. Water, after meeting the pre-emptive needs for safe drinking water and sanitation, achieving food security, supporting poor people dependent on agriculture for their livelihood and high priority allocation for minimum eco-system needs, be treated as economic good so as to promote its conservation and efficient use. 3. Ecological needs of the river should be determined recognizing that river flows are characterized by low or no flows, small floods (freshets), large floods and flow variability and should accommodate development needs. A portion of river flows should be kept aside to meet ecological needs ensuring that the proportional low and high flow releases correspond in time closely to the natural flow regime. 4. Adaptation strategies in view of climate change for designing and management of water resources structures and review of acceptability criteria has been emphasized. 5. A system to evolve benchmarks for water uses for different purposes, i.e., water footprints, and water auditing be developed to ensure efficient use of water. Project financing has been suggested as a tool to incentivize efficient & economic use of water. 6. Setting up of Water Regulatory Authority has been recommended. Incentivization of recycle and re-use has been recommended. 7. Water Users Associations should be given statutory powers to collect and retain a portion of water charges, manage the

volumetric quantum of water allotted to them and maintain the distribution system in their jurisdiction. 8. Removal of large disparity in stipulations for water supply in urban areas and in rural areas has been recommended.

9. Water resources projects and services should be managed with community participation. Wherever the State Governments or local governing bodies so decide, the private sector can be encouraged to become a service provider in public private partnership model to meet agreed terms of service delivery, including penalties for failure. 10. Adequate grants to the States to update technology, design practices, planning and management practices, preparation of annual water balances and accounts for the site and basin, preparation of hydrologic balances for water systems, and benchmarking and performance evaluation.

Air pollution 5th biggest killer in India Jan 20, 2014

Outdoor air pollution has become the fifth largest killer in India after high blood pressure, indoor air pollution, tobacco smoking, and poor nutrition says a new set of findings of the Global Burden of Disease report. The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) report is a world-wide initiative involving the World Health Organization which tracks deaths and illnesses from all causes across the world every 10 years. The India specific findings were officially released at a Dialogue Workshop jointly organized by Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), Indian Council of Medical Research and the US-based Health Effects Institute. The report says that in 2010, about 620,000 premature deaths occurred in India from air pollution-related diseases. The India-specific analysis has been done using estimates of air pollution exposure at the national level and incidence of leading causes of deaths, aided by ground-level measurements, satellite remote sensing and models to capture population exposure. The GBD assessment follows a rigorous scientific process involving over 450 global experts and partner institutions including the Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation, the WHO, the Health Effects Institute, the University of Queensland, Australia, Johns Hopkins University, and Harvard University. The key new findings - India a) Shocking increase in Indian death toll: Air pollution is the fifth leading cause of death in India, with 620,000 premature deaths in 2010. This is up from 100,000 in 2000 a six-fold increase. b) Massive loss in healthy years: Air pollution is the seventh leading cause behind the loss of about 18 million healthy years of life due to illness. It comes after indoor air pollution, tobacco smoking, high blood pressure, childhood underweight, low nutritional status, and alcohol use. c) Respiratory and cardiovascular diseases key reasons for air pollution-induced premature deaths: These diseases include stroke (25.48%), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (17.32%), Ischemic heart disease (48.6%), lower respiratory infections (6.4%), and trachea, bronchus and lung cancer (2.02%). Trends in polluted cities a) Close to half the cities are reeling under severe particulate pollution while newer pollutants like nitrogen oxides, ozone and air toxics are worsening the public health challenge. b) Vulnerable urban population: Half of the urban population breathes air laced with particulate pollution that has exceeded the standards. As much as one third of the population is exposed to critical levels of particulate pollution. Smaller and more obscure cities are amongst the most polluted. c) More cities in grip of PM10: About 78% cities (141) exceed the PM10 standard. 90 cities have critical levels of PM10; 26 have the most critical levels, exceeding the standard by over three times. Gwalior, West Singhbhum, Ghaziabad, Raipur, and Delhi are the top five critically polluted cities. d) More cities in grip of NO2: About 10% of the cities (19) exceed the NO2 standard. Of these, about nine have critical levels. Howrah, Barrackpore, Badlapur, Ulhasnagar and Asansol are the top five critically polluted cities.

e) State of SO2 pollution: One city -- Lote in Maharashtra -- exceeds the SO2 standard. Moderate levels of SO2 are noted in Jamshedpur and Saraikela Kharsawan in Jharkhand; Chandrapur, Badlapur, Ulhasnagar, and Pune in Maharashtra; Ghaziabad and Khurja in UP, Dehradun in Uttarakhand and Marmagao and Curchorem in Goa. f) Cities with double-trouble -- particulates and NO2: Howrah, Barrackpore, Asansol, Durgapur, Sankrail, Raniganj, Kolkata (West Bengal), Badlapur and Ulhasnagar (Maharashtra) have critical levels of NO2 and PM10. Delhi, Haldia, Bicholim, Jamshedpur, Meerut, Noida, Saraikela Kharsawan, Jalgaon and Raipur have high levels of NO2 as well as critical levels of PM10. g) Worsening trend since 2005: The PM10 monitoring network has doubled between 2005 and 2010 from 96 to 180 cities. During this period the cities with low level of pollution have fallen from 10 to 2, while the number of critically polluted cities has increased from 49 to 89. In 2005 about 75% of the cities exceeded the standard. In 2010, 78% are exceeding the standard. NO2 monitoring has expanded from 100 cities in 2005 to 177 in 2010. In 2005 only one city had exceeded the standard for NO2; in 2010, 19 cities have exceeded the standard. The tightening of the national ambient air quality standards has also changed the air quality profile of the cities. h) Stabilisation in some cities: Some mega cities that have initiated some pollution control action in recent years have witnessed either stabilisation or some decrease in the levels.

What should India do?

a) Make National Ambient Air Quality Standards legally binding in all regions: The national air quality planning and city action plans need a roadmap for each source of pollution and aggressive measures. Impose penalty on cities if air quality standards are violated. b) Prepare stringent vehicle technology and fuel quality roadmap, encourage in-use vehicle management: It is shocking that the terms of reference of the new committee that has been set up to propose the next Auto Fuel Policy Roadmap does not even include public health in its agenda. Make urgent timelines for Euro V and Euro VI emissions standards. Restrain dieselization. c) Control and cut increase in vehicle numbers by scaling up public transport, non-motorised transport, compact city planning and car restraint measures. d) Strengthen implementation plans for critically polluted notified areas e) Account for health cost in decision making: Valuation of acute and chronic illnesses must be linked to decision on air pollution control measures. f) Put in place a public information system on daily air quality with health advisories and implement smog alert and pollution emergencies measures.

Green building Dec 02, 2013

A building which can function using an optimum amount of energy, consume less water, conserve natural resources, generate less waste and create spaces for healthy and comfortable living, as compared to conventional buildings, is a green building. When a number of green buildings are located in proximity, they would create a green zone, providing much healthier environment and minimise heat-island effect.

GRIHA Rating System The GRIHA Rating System contains 34 evaluation criteria with 100 points. These criteria have been categorized into (i) Site Planning including conservation and efficient utilization of resources, health and wellbeing during building planning and construction stage (ii) Water Conservation (iii) Energy Efficiency including energy embodied & construction and renewable energy (iv) Waste Management including waste minimization, segregation, storage, disposal and recovery of energy from waste and (v) Environment for good health and wellbeing. Additional criteria for innovative developments such as alternative transportation, environmental education enhanced accessibility for physically/mentally challenged are also awarded points. GRIHA has a 100-point system consisting of some core points, which are mandatory to be met while the rest are optional, which can be

earned by complying with the commitment of the criterion for which the point is allocated. Different levels of rating (one star to five stars) are awarded based on the number of points earned. The minimum points required for rating is 50. Buildings scoring 5060 points, 61-70 points, 71-80 and 81 90 points will get one star, two stars, three stars, and four stars, respectively. A building scoring 91-100 points will receive the maximum rating, which are five stars. Out of these 100 points up to 8 points are earmarked for the renewable energy applications including upto 3 points for Solar Water Heating systems. The futuristic green buildings are to use green materials which are in research stage now. Green wood: A Stanford team has done a research for wood alternate. Hemp fibers and biodegradable plastic were pressed together and heated to form layers and this material is as strong as wood. When buried in land fill, it degrades faster. Green Cement: Bruce Constantz at Calera, based in Los Gatos, has developed a green method to produce both cement and aggregate, another component of Concrete. Their method sequesters Carbon Di Oxide from power plant flues and mixes the gas with sea water to produce the mineral raw materials of concrete. For every ton of green cement Calera manufactures half a ton of fly ash from coal plants is used apart from preventing production and emission of Corbon Di Oxide. Other Green Building materials: Renewable plant materials like bamboo (because bamboo grows quickly) and straw, lumber from forests ecology blocks, dimension stone. Recycled stone, recycled metal are some of the other materials used in a Green Building.

Renewable Energy part 1 Nov 19, 2013

Fossil fuels like coal, crude oil and natural gas, provide almost 80 per cent of the worlds supply of primary energy, it has resulted in serious environmental concernsparticularly the climate change. Thus Renewable energy can help in controlling the climate change. Here I am briefly discussing different types of renewable energy types. a)Solar Energy The energy radiated from the sun comes from the nuclear fusion process taking place in its core, where the temperature is about 15,000,000C. The solar energy is transmitted in the form of short wave electromagnetic radiations. Photovoltaic (PV) materials and devices are used to convert sunlight into electrical energy, and these PV cells are commonly known as solar cells. b)Wind energy Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric air. Wind energy systems convert this kinetic energy to more useful forms of power. Wind energy systems for irrigation and milling have been in use since ancient times and since the beginning of the 20th century it is being used to generate electric power. Windmills for water pumping have also been installed in many countries particularly in the rural areas. c)Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is heat from within the Earth. In areas where hot springs or geothermal reservoirs are near the Earth's surface, hot water can be piped in directly to heat homes or office buildings. Geothermal water is pumped through a heat exchanger, which transfers the heat from the water into the building's heating system. The used water is injected back down a well into the reservoir to be reheated and used again. Geothermal power plants do not burn fuel to generate electricity, so their emission levels are very low. They release less than 1% of the carbon dioxide emissions of a fossil fuel plant. Geothermal power plants produce electricity consistently, running 24 hours per day / 7 days per week, regardless of weather conditions. d)Biogas Biogas is a combustible mixture of gases consists mainly of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and is formed from the anaerobic bacterial decomposition of organic compounds, i.e. without oxygen. The gases formed are the waste products of the respiration of these decomposer microorganisms and the composition of the gases depends on the substance that is being decomposed. If the material consists of mainly carbohydrates, such as glucose and other simple sugars and high-molecular compounds (polymers) such as cellulose and hemicellulose, the methane production is low. However, if the fat content is high, the methane production is likewise high.

e)Ethanol fuel Ethanol is an alternative energy source. It is an alcohol made by fermenting corn or other similar biomass material. When mixed with unleaded gasoline, ethanol increases octane levels, decreases exhaust emissions, and extends the supply of gasoline. Ethanol, when used as a gasoline component, improves combustionhelping the fuel burn more completely. Ethanol blends also reduce carbon monoxide emissions.

Renewable Energy part 2 Nov 26, 2013

few more renewable energy types. a)Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a marine renewable energy technology that harnesses the solar energy absorbed by the oceans to generate electric power. The suns heat warms the surface water a lot more than the deep ocean water, which creates the oceans naturally available temperature gradient, or thermal energy. In geographical areas with warm surface water and cold deep water, the temperature difference can be leveraged to drive a steam cycle that turns a turbine and produces power. Warm surface sea water passes through a heat exchanger, vaporizing a low boiling point working fluid to drive a turbine generator, producing electricity. The distinctive feature of OTEC is the potential to provide base load electricity, which means day and night (24/7) and year-round. This is a big advantage, for instance tropical islands that typically has a small electricity network, not capable of handling a lot of intermittent power. Military shore-side bases and communities in the tropics, many of which are largely dependent on imported fossil fuels for power and transportation, are ideal candidates for such a system. b)Tidal Energy Tidal energy is a renewable source of energy and produced from ocean water during the rise and fall of tides. In the 20th century, engineers developed ways to use tidal movement to generate electricity in areas where there is a significant tidal range, the difference in area between high tide and low tide. All methods use special generators to convert tidal energy into electricity. For most tidal energy generators, turbines are placed in tidal streams. A tidal stream is a fast-flowing body of water created by tides. A turbine is a machine that takes energy from a flow of fluid. That fluid can be air (wind) or liquid (water). Because water is much denser than air, tidal energy is more powerful than wind energy. Unlike wind, tides are predictable and stable. Where tidal generators are used, they produce a steady, reliable stream of electricity. Tidal power offers an inexhaustible supply of energy, free of greenhouse gas emissions and has the advantage of being totally predictable, as tidal currents result from perfectly known astronomical phenomena. If all suitable tidal sites in the world were exploited for tidal power, it is estimated that 100 TWh of electricity could be produced each year. c)Fuel Cell Fuel cells are one of the cleanest and most efficient technologies for generating electricity. Fuel cells are electro chemical devices that convert chemical energy in fuels into electrical energy directly, promising power generation with high efficiency and low environmental impact. Hydrogen , the most common fuel which is used but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they require a constant source of fuel and oxygen/air to sustain the chemical reaction and fuel cells can produce electricity continually for as long as these inputs are supplied. Fuel cells are an important technology for a potentially wide variety of applications including on-site electric power for households and commercial buildings; supplemental or auxiliary power to support car, truck and aircraft systems; power for personal, mass and commercial transportation; and the modular addition by utilities of new power generation closely tailored to meet growth in power consumption. d)Magnetohydrodynamic power generator Magnetohydrodynamic power generation provides a way of generating electricity directly from a fast moving stream of ionised gases without the need for any moving mechanical parts - no turbines and no rotary generators. It can be studied as a method for extracting electrical power from nuclear reactors and also from more conventional fuel combustion systems.

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power plants offer the potential for large-scale electrical power generation with reduced impact on the environment. The first known attempt to develop an MHD generator was made at Westing house research laboratory (USA) around 1936. With the present research and development programmes, the MHD power generation may play an important role in the power industry in future to help the present crisis of power. e)Biodiesel Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant greases. It is safe, biodegradable, and produces less air pollutants than petroleum-based diesel. Biodiesel can be used in its pure form (B100) or blended with petroleum diesel. Common blends include B2 (2% biodiesel), B5, and B20. Biodiesel is Less air pollutants (other than nitrogen oxides). Biodegradable. Domestically produced from non-petroleum, renewable resources. Can be used in most diesel engines, especially newer ones. Less greenhouse gas emissions (e.g. B20 reduces CO2 by 15%) Non-toxic Safer to handle Currently more expensive.

Deforestation Nov 15, 2013

Deforestation involves the deliberate removal of vegetation to create new agricultural or urban land, to provide wood for building and manufacturing, for the exploitation of minerals and fossil fuels, to create reservoirs for water supplies and hydroelectric generation, for fuel, or as a result of the use of defoliants during wars. Main causes of deforestation in India are: explosion of human and livestock population, increased requirement of timber and fuel wood, expansion of cropland and enhanced grazing. Another cause of forest degradation is construction of roads along the mountains. Increased demand for fuel wood, wooden crates, paper, board and newsprint has led to large scale tree felling. Ideally one third (or 33 per cent) of land of a country must be covered by forest. But in India, forest cover is only 21.05 per cent, out of which only 12.3 per cent are thick forest. Rest is bushy land. Deforestation gives birth to several problems encompassing environmental degradation through accelerated rate of soil erosion, increase in the sediment load of the rivers, siltation of reservoirs and river beds, increase in the frequency and dimension of floods and droughts, changes in the pattern of distribution of precipitation, intensification of greenhouse effects, increase in the destructive force of the atmospheric storms etc; economic loss through damages of agricultural crops due to increased incidence of floods and drought, decrease in agricultural production because of loss of fertile top soils, decrease in the supply of raw materials to the industries are building materials (timber) to the urban and rural areas, marked decrease in fodder to animals etc. and social problems in the form of economic poverty, crimes and increased legal litigation. Further accelerated rate of soil erosion, through rain splash, rain-wash, sheet wash, rill erosion and gully erosion, consequent upon deforestation, increases sediment load of the rivers. Increased suspended and bed loads of the rivers cause rapid rate of siltation of alluvial rivers which results in gradual rise of the river beds. Thus increased surface run-off and reduced water accommodation capacity of the river valleys due to siltation increase the frequency and dimension of floods of alluvial rivers as flood waters easily overtop the river banks and spread over large areas. Increased rate of soil erosion caused due to deforestation also results in colossal loss of fertile topsoil and agricultural land which ultimately causes marked reduction in agricultural production. Deforestation is a contributing factor to the green house effect. The trees are large Carbon dioxide stores, and when the trees are burnt they release this gas. This leads to an increase in the Carbon dioxide levels in the air. Carbon dioxide is the major contributor in the green house effect. Deforestation has also increased the rate of aeolian erosion through deflation and desertification through desert spreads. Many of the tribal areas of the forested land of India have lost the forest stands in their immediate surroundings and thus are facing the acute problem of fuels and fodder. The destruction and alteration of habitats due to deforestation causes ecological imbalance in

the region concerned. The following steps can be taken to overcome the catastrophical effects of deforestation Increase the tree cover in the so-called forests declared in our statistical figures. Convert the degraded land not useful for agriculture into forestland. Utilize the culturable wastes and fallow lands, special types of trees could be planted in these areas. Plant trees on roadsides, railway lines, canal banks and farm boundaries. Encourage planting of firewood trees in woodlots around villages, school yards, public buildings, church yards, and cemeteries, market squares, etc. Test the growth in all the production areas and control the harvesting intensity to improve the forest productivity. Enforce the present laws strictly to avoid illegal and indiscriminate felling of trees by businessmen, industrialists and rural men. Search out and reduce the wasteful use of available fuel by ensuring that the existing wood resources are harvested and used without waste. This requires test and development of fuel-efficient stores. We should also think of alternative energy sources as biogas and solar heat. Encourage energy plantation in the industrial and rural sectors. Food Web and Food Chain Jan 16, 2014 The living community of plants and animals in any area together with the non-living components of the environment such as soil, air and water, constitute the ecosystem. Every living organism is in some way dependent on other organisms. Plants are food for herbivorous animals which are in turn food for carnivorous animals. Thus there are different tropic levels in the ecosystem. The transfer of energy from the source in plants through a series of organisms by eating and\being eaten constitutes food chains. At each transfer, a large proportion of energy is lost in the form of heat. Hence green plants occupy the first level, herbivores the second level, carnivores the third level and secondary carnivores the fourth level. Food chains show one producer being eaten by one consumer and perhaps another consumer eating the first consumer. Food chains are not that simple in real ecosystems. Producers are usually eaten by many different consumers, and most consumers are eaten by more than one predator. For example, a squirrel eats several different types of seeds, fruits, and nuts. The squirrel may be eaten by a fox, a hawk, or a raccoon. The raccoon also feeds on frogs, clams, birds eggs, and corn. The fox will also eat mice and grasshoppers; the hawk will also eat frogs, mice, and snakes. Most organisms are part of several food chains. A model that shows the connections between several different food chains is called a food web. In a food chain, energy is lost in each step of the chain in two forms: first by the organism producing heat and doing work, and second, by the food that is not completely digested or absorbed. Therefore, the food web depends on a constant supply of energy from producers and nutrients that are recycled by the decomposition of organisms. As food is passed along the food chain, only about 10% of the energy is transferred to the next level. For example, 10% of the energy phytoplankton received from the sun can be used by zooplankton at the next level. From one level to the next about 90% of the energy used by the previous level is lost. This means that there has to be a lot more organisms at the lower levels than at the upper levels. The number of organisms at each level makes a pyramid shape and is called a food pyramid.

Outcomes of Doha Climate Change Conference Oct 28, 2013

Climate change is a complex problem, which, although environmental in nature, has consequences for all spheres of existence on planet. It either impacts on-- or is impacted by-- global issues, including poverty, economic development, population growth, sustainable development and resource management. Thus developed and developing countries has come up together to deal up the crisis of global warming which is having disastrous effect on all sectors of economy. The 18th session of the COP to the UNFCCC held in Doha, Qatar which has resulted in a set of decisions aimed at advancing the implementation of the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol (KP) after 2012. The key issues for the Doha conference were: amending the KP to implement the second commitment period under the Protocol; successfully concluding the work of the Bali Action Plan (BAP) within which there was urgent need for a clear path to climate finance; and planning the work under the Durban Platform (DP) for enhanced action. The key outcomes are discussed below: a)It has been agreed that the KP, as the only existing and binding agreement under which developed countries commit to cutting emissions of GHGs, will enter a second commitment period that will run for eight years as of 1 January 2013. This decision has ensured that there will be no gap between the first commitment period under the KP ending on 31 December 2012 and the second one commencing on 1 January 2013. b)With the exception of Russia, New Zealand, Japan, and Canada, all other countries have entered into the second round, with some new countries joining as well. It has been agreed that the KP Parties will revisit their targets in 2014 with a view to increasing their ambition. c)Governments have agreed to speedily work toward a climate change agreement under DP applicable to all countries from 2020, to be adopted by 2015. Further governments have decided to find ways to scale up efforts before 2020 to meet the gap in global ambition for emissions reduction. d)The Work Programme on Long term Finance launched last year has been extended for another year to contribute to the ongoing efforts to scale up mobilization of climate finance. e)Developed countries have reiterated their commitment to deliver on promises of mobilizing US$100 billion both for adaptation and mitigation by 2020. f)Finance pledges of about $ 6 billion for period upto 2015 announced by Germany, the UK, France, Denmark, Sweden and the EU Commission. g)The EU will reduce its emissions by 20 per cent by 2020 compared to 1990.

E- Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2011 Oct 25, 2013

The e-waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2011 come into effect from May 1, 2012. The rules were notified in May 2011 and aim at reduction in the use of hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment by specifying threshold for use of

hazardous material including lead, mercury and cadmium. The rule is applicable to every producer, consumer or bulk consumer, collection centre, dismantler and recycler of e-waste involved in the manufacture, sale, purchase and processing of electrical and electronic equipment or components. The rules place the main responsibility of e-waste management on the producers of the electrical and electronic equipment by introducing the concept of "extended producer responsibility"(EPR). Sectors like information and telecommunications equipment and consumer electrical and electronics falling within the specified categories will have to ensure that the products do not contain lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, poly-brominated biphenyls or poly-brominated di-phenyl ethers above a specified threshold. However, they will not apply to lead acid batteries as covered under the batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001, micro and small enterprises as defined in the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development Act, 2006 (27 of 2006) and radio-active wastes as covered under the provisions of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 (33 of 1962).

Electronic Waste problem in India Oct 25, 2013

E-waste consists of all waste from electronic and electrical appliances which have reached their end- of- life period or are no longer fit for their original intended use and are destined for recovery, recycling or disposal. It includes computer and its accessories monitors, printers, keyboards, central processing units; typewriters, mobile phones and chargers, remotes, compact discs, headphones, batteries, LCD/Plasma TVs, air conditioners, refrigerators and other household appliances. The composition of e-waste is diverse. Broadly, it consists of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, plastics, glass, wood and plywood, printed circuit boards, concrete, ceramics, rubber and other items. Iron and steel constitute about 50% of the waste, followed by plastics (21%), non-ferrous metals (13%) and other constituents. Non-ferrous metals consist of metals like copper, aluminium and precious metals like silver, gold, platinum, palladium and so on. The presence of elements like lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, selenium, hexavalent chromium, and flame retardants beyond threshold quantities make e-waste hazardous in nature. It contains over 1000 different substances, many of which are toxic, and creates serious pollution upon disposal. Obsolete computers pose the most significant environmental and health hazard among the e-wastes. There are 10 States that contribute to 70 per cent of the total e-waste generated in the country, while 65 cities generate more than 60 per cent of the total e-waste in India. Among the 10 largest e-waste generating States, Maharashtra ranks first followed by Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. Among the top ten cities generating e-waste, Mumbai ranks first followed by Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur.

Observer status of India in Arctic Council Oct 27, 2013

For many centuries, the Arctic was remote and pristine region left outside of scientific exploration as well as world politics. It was not before after Second World War with technical advancement and ever increasing need for resources and space that world's eyes turned to the Arctic. But instead of becoming a new scientific playground furthering our understanding on world's ecology, the Arctic became militarized region of both the east and the west for four long decades till the end of cold war. The Arctic Council which has been established by the Ottawa Declaration of 1996 consists of Canada, Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden, and the United States of America. It provides a forum for promoting cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic States, with the involvement of the Arctic Indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues, in particular issues of sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic. Different Territorial Claims

The Arctic Circle encloses 21 million square kilometres of land and 13 million [Link] of mostly ice-bound seas. As seen by the map the North Pole itself is in international waters and there is currently a discussion about how this area will be divided up. Any nation can submit an application to increase its economic zone and so far only an application by Norway has been approved. According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, countries are entitled to exclusive economic zones up to 200 miles from their shores. Some countries with a stake in the Arctic's riches are trying to extend that zone, some in more brazen ways than others. Russian scientists are keen on proving that the seabed below the North Pole is part of the Eurasian continental shelf, an area called the Lomonosov. Danish scientists are trying to prove that the Lomonosov Ridge is connected to Greenland, and Canadian scientists are looking for links between the ridge and Ellesmere Island, a Canadian territory. Importance of Arctic Region Recently the U.S. Geological Survey estimates that 90 billion barrels of oil, 44 billion barrels of natural gas liquids and 1,670 trillion cubic feet of natural gas are recoverable in the frozen region north of the Arctic Circle. There may also be significant reserves of coal, zinc and silver. As global warming causes the ice to melt, even for limited periods, the commercial exploitation of these resources is becoming feasible. In January 2011, the multinational oil major, BP, concluded a strategic alliance with the Russian State Company, Rosneft, to exploit the hydrocarbon resources in the Russian Arctic. Further Arctic shipping has become a reality in the summer months. The Northwest passage, mainly along Canada's Arctic Coast, will link Far East Asia with North America, while the North-East Passage, mainly along Russia's Arctic shoreline, would provide an alternate route between Asia and North America, but also between Europe and Asia. These Arctic routes, which used to be the stuff of fables in the 18th and 19th centuries, will cut global shipping routes by several thousand kilometres. For example, the Arctic route from Rotterdam (Holland) to San Francisco will be 4,000 km shorter than the existing route. This route has already been used in the past two summers by commercial shipping. The Arctic region is also now becoming a popular tourist destination. In 2010, over 50,000 tourists sailed the pristine waters of a hitherto forbidden zone. Unlike Antarctica, which has a treaty that prohibits territorial claims, there is no agreement for the vast expanse of the Arctic.

Indias observer status in Arctic council

The Arctic Council expanded the council by inclusion of six new nations India, China, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea and Singapore, as observer states, to increase economic and political competition.

India will be looking at the opportunities for hydrocarbon exploration offered in the Arctic circle (due to the melting of ice) by joining hands with one of the five countries gearing up for the purpose the U.S., Canada, Norway, Russia and Denmark. India will also get scientific research facilities and be able to understand climate change and its effect on monsoons.