Chapter 2: Usage and Diction

Chapter 2: Usage and Diction

Introduction
Words are the building blocks of language. They have the power to inform, entertain, and persuade. However, readers cannot ask questions, and writers cannot restate their ideas. Since readers must rely on the text for meaning, writers must choose words carefully and use them correctly and appropriately. In addition, usage errors and inappropriate diction can distort the message, disrupt the flow of language, and greatly affect the overall ethos of a document. Usage can apply to many things, but for the purposes of this chapter, it represents standard practices of language that do not specifically fit into grammar and punctuation or may be a combination of the two. Some of these items include abbreviations and numbers. In addition, many writers make common errors in word use. Understanding the standards for usage is important because by following them, writers express themselves more clearly, accurately, and concisely. Diction refers to a writer's choice of words and the manner in which he or she uses those words. The type of writing often dictates the types of words, and meaning may vary depending upon the context. Nevertheless, all writers must carefully select the appropriate words to use in specific situations. This requires that one understands the meanings of words and how to use them. Understanding both the technical meanings and the connotations of words is essential to proper word usage.

2.1 Abbreviations
Writers should use abbreviations with caution. For the most part, they are not appropriate in academic writing except in tables, charts, and works cited or reference lists. Nevertheless, some abbreviations are acceptable in specific discourse communities such as scientific, technical, and business writing. Each community may have a separate set of standards, so it is important to follow the guidelines in that field. This section presents standard guidelines outlined by the Modern Language Association (MLA). Whenever using abbreviations, always keep the audience in mind and always use accepted forms.

A. General Rules
Do not use periods after letters or spaces between letters, especially if the abbreviation is all capital letters. The exception to this is initials in a personal name and abbreviations that end in lowercase letters.

Examples
A.J. Smith introd. assn.

If the abbreviation consists of lowercase letters where each represents a word, place a period after each letter but do not use a space between letters.

Chapter 2: Usage and Diction

Examples
a.m. e.g. i.e.

As with anything in the English language, exceptions exist.

Examples
mph rpm os

B. Titles
Titles before and after proper names are usually abbreviated.

Examples
Mr. John Smith Prof. Lewis Stuart Sen. Joanne Night Mrs. Mae Johnson Rep. Douglas White Gen. Melvin Tuna Alvin D. Brown Jr. Lewis Stuart PhD Alvin E. Brown Sr. Julia Brown MD

Do not use an abbreviated title without a name. (e.g. The Dr. doctor wrote a prescription.)

C. Organization Names and Technical Terms

Well-known business, government, social, and civic organizations may be referred to by capitalized initials. Sometimes the letters are pronounced as one word (acronym), and sometimes each letter is pronounced.

Examples
NASA NATO MTV MLA

Using abbreviations for complex technical terms is acceptable; however, spell out the term the first time it appears and follow with the abbreviated form in parentheses. If the document is long, especially one that has multiple parts such as chapters, spell out the term the first time it is used in the new section.

Example
According to the American Psychological Association (APA), abbreviations are best used only when they allow for clear communication with the audience.

D. Dates, Times of Day, and Temperatures

These items are often abbreviated. Always capitalize BC and AD. Use a.m. and p.m. only when accompanied by numbers.

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Examples
35 BC 35 BCE 12:00 p.m. 32F AD 2013 2013 CE 9:30 a.m. 12 C

Do not use no. or No. except in technical writing when it precedes a specific number.

E. Misused Abbreviations
1. Do not abbreviate days of the week, months, or holidays.

Example
On Mon., Apr. Monday, April 22, classes end. 2. Do not abbreviate names of streets and places except for US and Washington, DC.

Example
The store is on Main St. Street in Orl. Orlando, FL. 3. Do not abbreviate the names of academic subjects.

Example
Freshmen usually take Bio. biology and Eng. Comp. English composition. 4. Write company names exactly as the company or firm writes them. Be sure to include the ampersand (&), and only use abbreviations with a company name.

Examples
Joe switched from Sprint to AT&T. The co. company needed to hire more employees. The two corp. corporations merged into one. Word Usage Inc. is a new start-up in Colorado. 5. Do not use abbreviations such as i.e., e.g., and etc. in academic writing. Know what each means before using it. i.e. ("that is") e.g. ("for example") etc. ("and so forth")

6. Units of measurement may be abbreviated when preceded by a numeral.

Example
The speed limit is 35 mph. *MLA requires that writers write out units of measurement such as inches and feet.

Chapter 2: Usage and Diction

7. The symbols =, +, and # are only acceptable in scientific and technical writing. The symbols % and $ are only acceptable when used with numerals.

Example
There was a 15% increase in enrollment.

2.2 Numbers
Specific conventions define when a writer should use a numeral (e.g. 10) and when to write out a number (e.g. forty-nine). Guidelines differ based on style. For example, APA requires that all numbers below ten be spelled out if they do not represent specific measurements. This section presents the rules and guidelines that apply to academic writing. Business and technical writing may follow a different set of standards, so writers should always consult a manual dedicated to those standards.

A. General Rules
1. Spell out a number if it is one or two words (or unless it fits into the conventional uses listed in the next section).

Examples
The alphabet has twenty-six letters. She will be three-years-old. He has saved three hundred dollars. 2. Use numerals for numbers more than two words long.

Examples
Nearly 155 students showed up for class. I would like to have 250,000 Facebook friends. 3. Never begin a sentence with a numeral. 4. If a number immediately precedes another in a sentence, write out the first, and use a numeral for the second.

Example
We had thirty-five 10-gallon containers. 5. To form a plural of a number, treat it like a regular noun.

Examples
fives tens

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B. Conventional Uses
Addresses: Dates: Exact times: Sums of money: Measurements: Percentages, fractions, and decimals: Divisions of written works: (Use arabic numerals only) Ratios, scores, statistics: Identification numbers: 1300 Alafaya Trail November 9, 2008 3:00 $99.25 6" 98% Page 331 a ratio of 10 to 1 Interstate 4 Orlando, FL 32756 1972-2013 3 p.m. $5,225.00 32 1/3 lines 25-35 The median was 50. Channel 13 35 mph 2.45 Chapter 1 They won 5 to 2. 3:00 p.m.

2.3 Common Errors

Clarity is essential to good style. Errors in usage obscure the meaning of what is being said; they decrease clarity and interfere with communication. In addition, readers usually perceive spelling errors as a reflection of the writer's careless attitude. English has a number of words that are easily confused or misunderstood. For ease of use, this section is divided into four subsections: misspelled words, confused and misused words, problem phrases, and non-words.

A. Commonly Misspelled Words

Writers must take care to spell words correctly. Not only do spelling errors confuse readers, but spelling also influences the way that they perceive a piece of writing. A writer who does not take time to correct spelling errors may appear unprofessional or, even worse, uneducated. Unfortunately, too many writers rely on spell check programs on their computers, which may not pick up on an error. Nevertheless, most programs will recognize typos and commonly misspelled words. Table 1 contains some commonly misspelled words:
Table 1. A list of twenty-two commonly misspelled words
INCORRECT CORRECT

accidently defendent existance Febuary fourty goverment harrass

accidentally defendant existence February forty government harass

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incidently independant indispensible innoculate judgement (acceptable) labratory milennium miniscule mischevious noticable perserverence preformance seperate supercede (acceptable) wierd

incidentally independent indispensable inoculate judgment laboratory millennium minuscule mischievous noticeable perseverance performance separate supersede weird

B. Most Commonly Confused and Misused Words

In addition to easily misspelled words, there are easily confused or misused words. While the word may be spelled correctly, it may have the wrong meaning. In this case the writer not only commits a spelling error, but he or she also confuses the reader, often resulting in a statement that means something very different from what the writer intends. Unfortunately, spell check programs will not identify these errors, but rest assured an astute reader will. It is important for writers to understand how to use words correctly. Commonly misused words often fall into one of three groups: homophones, homonyms, and homographs. Homophones are words that are pronounced the same but have different spellings and meanings such as alter the results and the altar in the church. Homonyms are words that share the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meaning such as turn to the left and left the book behind. Homographs, also known as heteronyms, are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings or pronunciations such as bow your head and tied in a bow.

Homophones can present an especially difficult problem because they sound alike, but the different spellings mean different things. Changing one letter in a word could alter the whole meaning of a sentence. In addition to homophones, possessives, pronouns, and contractions can present special problems for writers. The following list contains forty commonly mistaken or misused words followed by an explanation of each and an example.

Chapter 2: Usage and Diction

1. accept, except
Accept is a verb meaning to receive. (Joe accepted the gift from Sally.) Except is usually a preposition meaning excluding. (Sarah invited everyone except Julie.) Although not commonly used, except is also a verb meaning to exclude. (Please except that item from the list.)

2. advice, advise
Advice is a noun meaning recommendation. (Frank asked Fred for advice on his rsum.) Advise is verb meaning to counsel. (The doctor advised me to watch what I eat.)

3. adverse, averse
Adverse is an adjective meaning hostile or harmful. (The Surgeon General warns against the adverse effects of smoking.) Averse is a adjective meaning having a strong dislike. (Maria is averse to spinach.)

4. affect, effect
Affect is a verb meaning to influence. (The weather affected Nicole's mood.) Effect is usually a noun meaning result. (The overall effect was stunning.) Effect can also be a verb meaning to bring about. (Jack hoped to effect a dramatic change.)

5. allot, a lot, alot

Allot is a verb meaning to assign or distribute. (We will allot time for each speaker.) A lot is an adverb meaning to a considerable degree or often. (His car is a lot nicer than mine.) Alot is NOT a word.

6. allude, elude
Allude is a verb meaning to refer to. (Raymond alluded to Shakespeare in his paper.) Elude is a verb meaning to evade. (The suspect eluded the police.)

7. allusion, illusion
Allusion is a noun meaning an indirect reference. (The instructor made an allusion to the text.)

Chapter 2: Usage and Diction

Illusion is a noun meaning a misconception or false impression. (The artist created an illusion of depth with different colored paint.)

8. assure, ensure, insure

Assure is a verb meaning to guarantee. (Kevin assured me he would repay the loan.) Ensure is a verb meaning to make sure. (Please ensure that the package arrives safely.) Insure should only be used when talking about insurance.

9. anyway, any way

Anyway is an adverb meaning in any case. (We were late, but we went anyway.) Any way is an adjective-noun combination meaning in any manner. (Joan took payment in any way she could.)

10. bare, bear

Bare is an adjective meaning naked or exposed. (The wind felt cold on her bare arms.) Bare is also a verb meaning to uncover or expose. (During confession, the boy decided to bare his soul.) Bear is a noun. (The bear ate all of the food in the tent.) Bear is also a verb meaning to hold, exhibit, endure, support, or give birth to. (We could not bear to hear the bad news.)

11. beside, besides

Beside is a preposition meaning by or near. (Please put that beside the couch.) Besides is a preposition meaning other than or except. (No one besides us volunteered.) Besides is an adverb meaning moreover. (Natasha is not ready to drive. Besides, she enjoys walking.)

12. cannot, can not

Cannot is a verb meaning to be unable. (Thao cannot go to lunch today.) Can not is NOT a word.

13. capital, capitol

Capital is a noun that refers to a city or wealth. (The capital of Ohio is Columbus.) Capitol is a noun that refers to a building where lawmakers meet. (We took a tour of the Capitol.)

Chapter 2: Usage and Diction

14. climactic, climatic

Climactic is an adjective meaning the point of greatest intensity in a series or progression of events. (The movie ended with a climactic chase scene.) Climatic is an adjective meaning meteorological conditions. (The last ice age caused climatic upheaval.)

15. compliment, complement

Compliment is a noun or verb meaning praise. (We complimented the chef.) Complement is a noun or verb meaning to go well with something else. (The wine complemented our dinner.)

16. different from, different than

Different from is a prepositional phrase and should precede a noun or pronoun. (Apples are different from oranges.) Different than is a subordinating conjunction and should precede a dependent clause. (The event turned out different than what I expected.)

17. elicit, illicit

Elicit is a verb meaning to bring out or to evoke. (Juliet is such a good actress that she always elicits standing ovations.) Illicit is an adjective meaning unlawful. (He was arrested for illicit activities including theft.)

18. emigrate from, immigrate to

Emigrate is a verb meaning to leave one country or region to settle in another. (Many have emigrated from Syria to avoid war.) Immigrate is a verb meaning to enter another country and reside there. (My family immigrated to the United States in the 1800s.)

19. farther, further

Farther is an adverb meaning to a greater extent and physical distances. (Mike ran farther than Victor.) Further is an adjective or adverb meaning additional and figurative distances. (Can you provide further detail?) Further is a verb meaning to help forward or promote. (Melinda wanted to further the cause.)

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20. fewer, less

Fewer is a pronoun meaning a smaller number of persons or things. (Fewer than fifty people attended the concert.) Fewer is a comparative adjective meaning a smaller number of persons or things. (The store has fewer customers in the morning than at night.) Less is an adjective meaning of a reduced size, extent or degree. (Their relationship lasted less than two years.) *Use fewer when referring to people and things in the plural. Use less when referring to something that cannot be counted or does not have a plural, as well as numbers when they stand on their own and expressions of measurement or time.

21. foreword, forward

Foreword is a noun meaning the beginning of a book. (Bethany was honored to write the foreword for Madelyn's book.) Forward is a preposition or adverb indicating direction. (Please take two steps forward.)

22. its, it's

Its is a possessive pronoun. (Give the dog its toy.) It's is a contraction of it is. (Jamie feels that it's important.)

23. knew, new

Knew is a verb. (Angel knew the correct answer.) New is an adjective. (You will have to buy a new jacket.)

24. lay, lie

Lie is an intransitive verb meaning to recline or rest on a surface. (I lie down when I am tired.) Lay is a transitive verb meaning to put or place. (Chickens lay eggs.)

25. lead, led

Lead is a verb. (Alfred will lead the expedition tomorrow.) Lead is also a noun. (The paint had lead in it.) Led is a verb- the past tense form of lead. (Josie led the children to safety.)

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26. loose, lose

Loose is an adjective meaning the opposite of tight. (Please check to see if the bolts on the bench are loose.) Lose is a verb meaning the opposite of win. (Do not lose the bolts.)

27. me, myself

Me is a personal pronoun used in objective case. It should follow an action verb or preposition. (Florian gave me the message. The decision will be made by me.) Myself is a reflexive or intensive pronoun. In other words, it reflects action or shows emphasis. (I can see myself in the window. I made the dinner myself.)

28. precede, proceed

Precede is a verb that means to come before. (The testimony will precede closing arguments.) Proceed is a verb that means to go forward. (Once testimony has finished, closing arguments will proceed.)

29. principle, principal

Principal is a noun meaning the head of a school or an organization or a sum of money. Principle is a noun meaning a basic truth or law.

30. sit, set

Set is a transitive verb meaning to put or to place. Sit is an intransitive verb meaning to be seated.

31. that, which, who

That is a relative pronoun that refers to groups or things and introduces essential or restrictive clauses. (The movie that Julian saw was better than the one that Alex saw.) Which is a relative pronoun that refers to groups or things and introduces nonessential or nonrestrictive clauses. (Last night we went to see Argo, which won an Oscar Award.) Who is a relative pronoun that refers to people. (Carla is the woman who won the prize.)

32. their, there, they're

There is an adverb specifying place; it is also an expletive. Their is a possessive pronoun.

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They're is a contraction of they are.

33. then vs. than

Than is a conjunction used in comparisons. (Ruby was later than Roderick.) Then is an adverb denoting time or is part of an ifthen construction. (Finish your research then write the report. If you do not, then you may not have enough information.)

34. to, too, two

To is a preposition. (We went to the store.) Too is an adverb meaning as well. (Kira wanted to go too.) Two is a number. (We bought two loaves of bread.)

35. weak, week

Weak is an adjective. (Franklins thesis was weak and lacked support.) Week is a noun. (The big conference is next week.)

36. weather, whether

Weather is a noun meaning the state of the atmosphere. (The weather has been warm.) Weather is also a verb meaning to undergo or endure. (Julio weathered the debate.) Whether is used when making a choice. (I am not sure whether to wear blue or red.)

37. who, whom

Who is a pronoun that refers to the subject. (Who will be attending the lecture?) Whom is a pronoun that refers to the object. (Whom did you invite to the lecture?) **Quick tip: to check substitute he for who and him for whom. Who wrote the letter? He wrote the letter. For whom should I vote? Should I vote for him?

38. who's, whose

Whose is a possessive pronoun. (Whose pen is this?) Who's is a contraction short for who is. (Who's going to the store?)

39. woman vs. women

Woman is a singular noun. (The woman by holding the sign is a breast cancer survivor.) Women is a plural noun. (The women walked together to bring awareness to breast cancer.)

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**Quick tip: to check substitute man for woman and men for women.

40. your, you're

Your is a possessive pronoun. (Your new outfit looks great.) You're is a contraction for you are. (You're going to be late.)

C. Problem Words and Phrases

In addition to confusing words that are spelled or sound alike, writers also make mistakes with some common words and phrases. These are likely to be written incorrectly because in speech words are often shortened or slurred together so that not all of the letters are pronounced, which makes it easy to leave letters out when writing. The following list contains some common errors and the correct use for each.

Common Error
1. suppose to 2. use to 3. towards 4. anyways 5. could care less 6. enthused 7. for all intensive purposes 8. hone in on 9. in regards to 10. try and 11. on accident

Correct Use
supposed to used to toward anyway could not care less enthusiastic home in on in regard to try to by accident Anyways is nonstandard. Be sure to make it negative. Enthused is informal.

for all intents and purposes

D. Non-words
Some of the most severe mistakes that writers make are not even words. The following is a brief list.

Non-word
1. alright 2. orientate 3. irregardless 4. conversate

Correct Use
all right orient regardless or irrespective converse

**Remember, a writers job is to communicate clearly. One should always check a dictionary if uncertain about a word's meaning.

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2.4 Double Negatives

A double negative occurs when two forms of negation are used in the same clause. The problem is that double negatives cancel one another and produce a positive. They are not considered acceptable in current Standard English and should be avoided. Just use a single negative instead.

Example
We didn't see nothing. She never talked to nobody.

Correction
We saw nothing. She didn't talk to anybody.

Negative words include no, not, never, none, nothing, no one, nobody, nowhere, neither, hardly, scarcely, and barely. There are several ways to correct or eliminate double negatives.

A. Eliminate not by writing the opposite

Example
Fred believes it is not possible to win the lottery.

Correction
Fred believes it is impossible to win the lottery.

Change
not possible not happy not stop not notice not finished not the same not include not agree

to
impossible sad continue overlook incomplete different omit refuse

B. Avoid using two or more negatives in a sentence

Example
Fabiana believes that it is not impossible to win the lottery.

Correction
Fabiana believes that it is possible to win the lottery.

Change
not impossible not unhappy not unlikely

to
possible happy likely

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not overlook not undecided not disagree not unknown

notice decided agree known

C. Make the negative into a positive

Example
It is not easy to understand unclear writing.

Correction
It is easy to understand clear writing.

2.5 Appropriate Diction

In order to communicate effectively, writers should choose words that are clear and concrete. While abstract terms lack impact, concrete language creates stronger impressions. In addition, the words should suit the purpose, audience, and situation. It is important to use the right level of diction. Informal diction is often inappropriate, and this section addresses common problems that writers should avoid.

A. Bias
Bias is prejudice or preference toward a particular subject. Unfortunately, some bias is so common that writers are often unaware of it. One might even argue that it is impossible for a writer to avoid bias. However, there are different levels and types of bias ranging from subtle to blatant and affecting every sociological group. While much biased writing includes things such as sexist language and stereotyping, they are not inherently the same. Bias can be positive or negative wherein the writer expresses a personal preference, and it interferes with the ability to be impartial, unprejudiced, or objective. While writers may use bias to persuade the readers to accept their point of view, academic and professional writers should endeavor to communicate information that is accurate and unbiased. One of the pitfalls of writing with bias is that the writer risks losing the respect of the readers as well as his or her credibility. More importantly, the writer risks offending others. Biased writing can be unintentional, so writers should always review their writing to look for it. There are some simple rules one can follow that will help reduce or prevent bias in writing. Eliminate inflammatory language, especially racial epithets, slurs, etc. Do not make assumptions. Avoid labeling people or groups whenever possible. Be aware of how language may come across to the intended audience and use what they prefer. Do not make claims where the purpose is to elevate or demean one group as compared to another.

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Present evidence that tells both sides of an event or issue, Do not intentionally withhold or ignore information that may cast the opposing view in a positive light. Do not manufacture, falsify, or dishonestly cite evidence in order to present information in a more positive light.

Example

Correction

Jolees son is autistic. Jolees son has autism. (This sentence is biased because it labels Jolees son.) Vegetarians are supporters of PITA. Some supporters of PITA are vegetarians. (This sentence is biased because it makes a generalization about vegetarians.)

B. Clichs
Clichs are worn-out phrases. In speech, most people use clichs at least every now and then. While clichs may be popular or entertaining, people overuse them to the extent that they become stale and meaningless. Nevertheless, clichs can be shortcuts in communication and have a purpose. In academic and formal situations, writers should avoid clichs whenever possible. The audience may be unfamiliar with or may misinterpret the phrase, which obscures meaning. Additionally, by resorting to a conventional way of saying something, the writer gives the strong impression that he or she is unoriginal.

Example
Her skin is as white as snow. The toddler went out like a light. Other examples of clichs include: pie in the sky avoid it like the plague the bottom line crystal clear off the beaten path head over heels

Correction
Her skin is pure white. The toddler slept soundly.

take it or leave it let sleeping dogs lie without a shadow of a doubt old as the hills back in the day game plan

C. Colloquialisms and Regionalisms

Colloquialisms are words or phrases that individuals use in everyday speech. Contractions such as Im and aint and shortened words such as phone and dorm are some examples as well as utility words like nice or great, placeholders like kind of, and phrases like get a hold of. Colloquialisms specific to a geographical area are also called regionalisms. An example of a regionalism is the term one uses when referring to "soft drinks". In some areas of the United States, people call soft drinks "pop", whereas in other areas, they refer to it as "soda" or tonic.

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While colloquialisms and regionalisms are appropriate in informal conversation and situations, they are not appropriate in formal writing. They make writing appear unprofessional and can impair meaning, especially if the reader is not familiar with the word or phrase.

Example
Angela messed up the project. The kids tore off down the street. Other examples of colloquialisms include: cop veggies kind of big deal a lot blab okay (or OK) guys

Correction
Angela ruined the project. The children ran down the street.

had better mom/dad only a few get-together sort of gonna, wanna coulda, shoulda, woulda whats up?

D. Euphemisms
A euphemism is usually an innocuous word or expression an individual uses in place of one that may be offensive or suggest something unpleasant. Writers may use euphemisms in order to avoid words that the audience would consider rude. Furthermore, some use euphemisms to amuse their audience, while others use insipid, inoffensive, and often misleading terms for things they wish to disguise or downplay. Writers may also use euphemisms to inflate or magnify something, making it sound more important than it really is. Although some euphemisms have become standard such as "pass away" for "die, they can obscure important details in formal writing. Additionally, the use of euphemisms may lead to ethical concerns.

Example
She is currently in between jobs. He listed his last job as sanitation engineer. Other examples of euphemisms include: correctional facility departed differently-abled negative patient outcome collateral damage

Correction
She is currently unemployed. He listed his last job as garbage collector.

letting someone go put to sleep big-boned inappropriate relationship economical with the truth

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E. Jargon
Jargon is the specific technical language for a profession, craft, trade, or activity. Jargon can be good and bad depending on the writing situation. While jargon may be an integral part of writing for a specific audience, it can also serve to intimidate or impress others. Therefore, a writer must always keep his or her audience in mind, and one needs to be careful to not overuse it. In other words, writers should only use jargon that is necessary and appropriate for the document and audience. Avoid using terms that are unnecessary, pretentious, or obstruct meaning.

Example
There has been a meaningful statistical downturn that has caused many to become economically marginalized.

Correction
There has been a recession that has caused many to become unemployed. The website [Link], whose purpose is to improve communication between the federal government and the public, provides the following examples of jargon that serves to obfuscate or marginalize: Economists cost-push inflation marginal-cost pricing Computing ASCII RAM Insurance annuitants arbitrate debentures Photography ASA rating f-stop Human Resources career alternative enhancement program career-change opportunity dehiring staff derecruiting resources downsizing employment employee reduction activities implementing a skills mix adjustment negative employee retention optimizing outplacement potential rectification of a workforce imbalance teleconverter TTL metering Gilts sum assured disk drive intranets J-curve

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redundancy elimination right-sizing employment selecting out manpower The Military arbitrarily deprive of life render non-viable terminate with extreme prejudice armed reconnaissance Politicians meaningful statistical downturn period of economic adjustment The Bureaucracy the involuntary undomiciled The Employee vehicle appearance operative

strategic downsizing vocation relocation policy

servicing the target terrain alteration accidental delivery of ordnance

negative economic growth interruption of economic expansion

the economically marginalized

environmental hygienist

F. Neologisms
Neologisms are newly coined words or phrases that do not include standard English, and they often become a widely accepted part of language. However, some neologisms are never accepted. Writers must be careful to avoid using these because while the word or phrase may be in the process of entering common use, it has not yet been accepted into mainstream language. X-ray, aspirin, and radar are examples of words that were once neologisms but are now widely accepted. Omnishambles is an example of a neologism that has recently surfaced but is not commonly used. Some neologisms may never receive wide acceptance. If a writer chooses to use a neologism, he or she must be confident that the word or phrase does not serve as a distraction and the audience will understand it.

Examples
Alpha consumers were part of the test group. Virtonautics may eventually become as popular as aeronautics and astronautics.

G. Sexist Language
Sexist language can be defined as words and phrases that demean, exclude, or stereotype members of either sex or that call attention to gender when it is not relevant. Writers should avoid sexist language because it may be offensive and reinforces assumptions about gender roles. Furthermore, writers who uses sexist language, even if it is inadvertent, will have a difficult time convincing the audience that they are credible.

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Writers can avoid or eliminate sexist language by rephrasing it to be gender neutral. There are several strategies one can use. 1. Use terms that can apply uniformly to both men and women.

Example
businessman chairman mankind manmade

Correction
executive, businessperson chairperson people, human beings synthetic

2. Avoid gendered pronouns. Instead use he or she or make the pronoun plural as in their.

Example
A student must complete his work.

Correction
A student must complete his or her work. Students must complete their work.

3. Do not use words to describe one gender that you would not use to describe the other.

Example
The cautious men and timid women waited.

Correction
The cautious men and women waited.

4. Avoid adding gender markers to genderless titles.

Example
The male nurse attended to the patient. A lady lawyer argued the case. 5. Avoid language that reinforces stereotypes.

Correction
The nurse attended to the patient. A lawyer argued the case.

Example
Managers and their wives will be present. Mothers, pack healthy snacks for your child. 6. Treat men and women in a parallel manner.

Correction
Managers and their guests will be present. Parents, pack healthy snacks for your child.

Example
Mr. Jones and his wife have a reservation. Campus police arrested five students including two women and three boys.

Correction
Mr. and Mrs. Jones have a reservation. Campus police arrested five students including two women and three men.

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I. Slang
Slang is the informal vocabulary of a group or subculture. Basically, it is language that calls attention to itself, and the group may use it to establish or reinforce an identity. Slang often consists of vivid and expressive words or phrases, but they quickly come and fade from popular use. This makes it difficult for general audiences to know the intended use of the word or phrase. In addition, the advent of the internet and other technology has added internet and texting slang to the English repertoire. Readers who recognize slang may consider it laziness or question the writers credibility. While a writer may believe that these words make writing more interesting, they are not appropriate for academic or professional writing.

Example
The documents design is lame. The software has a glitch. Other examples of slang: dissing freak-out dirt poor hot (as in good looking) cool (as in good) gizmo

Correction
The documents design is inadequate. The software has a defect.

yuppie wicked photoshoppped down time OMG! spose

J. Stereotypes
Stereotypes are generalizations about groups or classes of people. They can encompass race, nationality, culture, gender, age, profession, socioeconomic status, disability, and more. Stereotypes may be positive or negative, and regardless of whether or not they are accurate, people often use them to justify discriminatory beliefs or behaviors. Even generalizations that seem positive may be offensive and alienate readers because they assign characteristics to group membership, not the individual. Stereotypes are never appropriate in academic or professional writing and should be eliminated.

Examples
Juan can translate Spanish because his parents are from Cuba. The engineering staff will not understand figurative language, so make sure there are not any allusions or metaphors in the document.

2.6 Eliminating wordiness

Think about how concise one must be to communicate through a text message or tweet. Although many of the abbreviations and nonstandard spellings are not appropriate in academic or professional writing, the main message still has to be communicated to an audience. Whenever possible, trim nonessential words from the text. However, remember that a sentence is

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not concise just because it is short. A well-written sentence is concise because it contains only the words necessary to make its point. The types of excess words that this section will cover include deadwood, utility words, circumlocution, and pleonasms.

A. Deadwood
Deadwood refers to phrases that only serve to take up space and add nothing to the meaning of the sentence. These may include unnecessary words and phrases at the beginning of a sentence as well as phrases like it is and there are. Deadwood also includes opinion statements such as I believe, I feel, I think, and it seems to me.

Example
There are many books that Laura loves.

Correction
Laura loves many books.

Example
I think that writers must always consider their audience first.

Correction
Writers must always consider their audience first.

B. Utility Words
Utility words contribute nothing to the meaning of the sentence. They may be vague nouns, general adjectives, and commonly used adverbs. Writers should either delete utility words or replace them with something more specific. Table 2 has some examples.
Table 2. Utility words to eliminate or replace Nouns Adjectives Adverbs aspect, factor, situation, type bad, good, important actually, basically, definitely, quite, very

C. Circumlocution
Circumlocution occurs when a writer uses complicated phrases or excess words to say something rather than concrete, specific words and phrases. Table 3 provides examples of wordy phrases that can be replaced by a more concise or direct term.

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Table 3. List of wordy phrases

Instead of a majority of a number of at an early date at the conclusion of at the present time at this point in time based on the fact that by means of despite the fact that due to the fact that during the course of for the purpose of have the ability to have a capability to in the event that in order to in regard to in the vicinity of in view of the fact that it is often the case that of the opinion that on account of on a daily basis on the grounds that prior to relative to so as to subsequent to take into consideration until such time as

Use most some, many soon after now now because by although because during for be able to can if to regarding, about near because often think that because daily because before regarding, about to after consider until

D. Pleonasms
Pleonasms are repetitive or redundant phrases that weigh down writing with unnecessary words. The words may be synonyms and superfluous adjectives. While a careful repetition of key words and sentence structures can help establish clear connections, writers must be careful to avoid and eliminate needless repetition, especially when it adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence. Excessive pleonasms in a piece of writing can make it appear to be full of filler content or fluff, and the audience may not regard it seriously. Table 4 provides a comprehensive list of pleonasms that are easily revised. Writers should use one word or the other but not both.

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Table 4. List of common redundancies 12 midnight 12 noon

C
careful scrutiny cease and desist close proximity cold (or hot) temperature commute back and forth complete stop completely through connect together consensus of opinion crisis situation/emergency situation cacophony of sound cameo appearance cancel out careful scrutiny cash money cease and desist circle around circulate around classify into groups closed fist collaborate together combine together commute back and forth compete with each other completely annihilate completely destroyed completely eliminate completely engulfed completely filled completely surround component parts confer together connect together connect up confused state consensus of opinion constantly maintained cooperate together could possibly crisis situation curative process current incumbent current trend

A
absolutely essential (or necessary) actual experience actual facts add an additional add up added bonus advance forward advance notice that ________ will be forthcoming advance planning advance preview advance reservations advance warning all meet together all over again also _________, too apply an application armed gunman ask for it by name ATM machine autobiography of my life awkward predicament aid and abet all-time record alternative choice A.M. in the morning and etc. anonymous stranger annual anniversary ascend up ask the question assemble together attach together ATM machine autobiography of his or her own life

B
basic fundamentals both the same/both different basic fundamentals basic necessities best ever biography of his or her life blend together boat marina bouquet of flowers brief in duration brief moment brief summary burning embers

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D
difficult dilemma depreciate in value descend or drop down desirable benefits different kinds disappear from sight during the course of dwindle down

integrate together/integrate with each other

J
joined together

K
kills bugs dead kitty cat

L
little baby live studio audience

E
each and every end result estimated roughly at earlier in time eliminate altogether emergency situation empty hole empty out empty space enclosed herein enter in entirely eliminate equal to one another eradicate completely estimated at about evolve over time exact same exposed opening extradite back

M
meet together/meet with each other mutual _______ for each other mutually interdependent or interdependent on each other

N
natural instinct naturally inherent never at any time new baby boy was born NT technology (NT stands for New Technology) null and void number-one leader

O
over and done with overexaggerate

F
false fallacy filled to capacity first and foremost first initial free gift or free bonus gift friend of mine from whence frozen ice future recurrence

G
general public green in color grow in size

pair of twins past experience past history pre-_________ [most words with the prefix pre-, e.g., preheat, p airplane] PIN number; VIN number plan ahead poisonous venom preplan proceed forward progressively promoted puppy dog pursue after R race, color, (and creed) re-________ again reason is because reason why refer back regular routine

I
illegal discrimination illustrated drawing input into/output out of

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Chapter 2: Usage and Diction

S
same exact self-________ yourself separated apart from each other side note sideline small speck suddenly exploded surrounded on all sides

T
three-way love triangle time period truly sincere tuna fish

U
unexpected surprise unnamed anonymous

V
veiled ambush very pregnant very unique

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Bibliography "Dictionary and Thesaurus-Merriam-Webster Online." [Link]. Merriam-Webster Incorporated, 2013. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. "Frequently Misused Words." Amherst College. Amherst College. N.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. Hannigan, Carrie. Formal Writing Review. [Link]. 2008. Web. 21 Mar. 2013. Kirszner, Laurie G. and Stephen R. Mandell. The Concise Wadsworth Handbook. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005. Print. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 10. Springfield, Mass: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2002. Print. Meyer, Peter. "Common Errors in English Usage." Serendipity. N.p. N.d. Web. 7 Mar. 2013. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 7th ed. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 2009. Print. O'Keefe, Tim. "Some Common Grammar and Usage Mistakes in Undergraduate Philosophy Papers." Georgia State University. Georgia State University. 2003. Web. 5 Mar. 2013. The Purdue OWL. Purdue U Writing Lab, 2010. Web. 20 Feb. 2013. Schoemer, J. P."The Most Common Grammar, Usage, and Style Errors in Print Today." j/p/schoemer communications. JP Schoemer Communications. 2008. Web. 7 Mar. 2013. Wright, Nick. Keep It Jargon Free. [Link]. The Plain Language Action and Information Network. N.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2013. <[Link]

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