1

Name: Auliaul Eitrah Samsuddin

ID : 101104154
ICP oI Mathematics 2010
Arithmetics
1. Introduction
Arithmetics is one oI the oldest branch oI mathematics. The word
'arithmetics is derived Irom arithmos which means 'number in Greek. It is used
rangingly Irom simple daily counting to advance science and business
calculations. It involves the study oI quantity, especially as the result oI operations
that combine numbers. It reIers to the simpler properties when using the
traditional operations oI addition, subtraction, multiplication and division with
small values oI numbers. While the term 'higher arithmetic sometimes reIers to
more advanced results related to number theory.
2. History oI Arithmetics
There are actually countless theories about how arithmetics was Iirst used
and developed. Some oI them may overlapped others.
2.1. The Prehistory oI Arithmetics
The prehistory oI arithmetic is limited to a small number oI artiIacts which
may indicate the conception oI addition and subtraction, the best-known being the
Ishango bone Irom central AIrica, dating Irom somewhere between 20,000 and
18,000 BC, although its interpretation is disputed.
2.2. Egyptians and Babylonians Numerical System
The earliest written records indicate the Egyptians and Babylonians used
all the elementary arithmetic operations as early as 2000 BC. The Ancient
Egyptians used notation Ior their numerals in the Iirst dynasty, about 2850 BC.
The notations that the Ancient Egyptians used to interpret numerical system is
called 'hieroglyphics. This numerical system does not pay attention to the place.
2
Eor instance, iI , represents 1 and r represents 10 then 22 can be written as ,,rr,
,r,r, r,r, or rr,,. It is not likely to the Babylonians, their number notation
included positional notation, but instead in decimal (ten based), they used sixty
based. This system is developed around 2400 BC.
[Link] Greek and Hindu-Arabic Numerical System
In 300 BC. The Greek and Hindu-Arabic numerals were developed. The
Hindu-Arabic numerals were the most commonly used numerical systems. It is a
decimal-based systems where the 'none has also been represented as 0. While
the Ancient Greek had alpha ( ) represents 1, beta ( ) represents 2, gamma ( )
represents 3 and so on.
[Link] Numerical System
Another well-known numerical system is the Romanian numerical system.
This numerical system is also learned in elementary school. Some oI the
Romanian number notations are I (1), V (5), X (10), L (50), C (100), etc.
II our sole concern with numbers were to record them, as, say, historians
record dates, then one system oI notation would be pretty much as good as
another. But iI we are going to add, multiply and so on, then some systems are
clearly superior to others. II anyone doubts it, let him multiply 1748 by 34 as he
was taught in school and then try to multiply the same numbers MDCCXLVIII
and XXXIV using only the Roman numerals. It is our simple arabic notation
which makes it possible Ior a child oI ten to do arithmetical problems. It made it
possible Ior the general public, instead oI experts only, to learn arithmetics.
Despite its obvious advantages over previous methods, the Arabic system was
adopted generally in Europe only aIter a long struggle against the repressive Iorce
oI tradition and resistance to change.
3. Arithmetic Operations
The basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division, although this subject also includes more advanced operations, such
as manipulations oI percentages, square roots, exponentiation, and logarithmic
Iunctions. Arithmetic is perIormed according to an order oI operations. Any set oI
3
objects upon which all Iour arithmetic operations (except division by 0) can be
perIormed, and where these Iour operations obey the usual laws, is called a Iield
3.1. Addition ()
Addition is the basic operation oI arithmetic. In its simplest Iorm, addition
combines two numbers, the addends or terms, into a single number, the sum oI the
numbers (Such as 2 2 4 or 3 5 8).
Adding more than two numbers can be viewed as repeated addition; this
procedure is known as summation and includes ways to add inIinitely many
numbers in an inIinite series; repeated addition oI the number 1 is the most basic
Iorm oI counting.
Addition is commutative and associative so the order the terms are added
in does not matter. The identity element oI addition (the additive identity) is 0,
that is, adding 0 to any number yields that same number. Also, the inverse
element oI addition (the additive inverse) is the opposite oI any number, that is,
adding the opposite oI any number to the number itselI yields the additive
identity, 0. Eor example, the opposite oI 7 is 7, so 7 (7) 0.
Addition can be given geometrically as in the Iollowing example: II we
have two sticks oI lengths 2 and 5, then iI we place the sticks one aIter the other,
the length oI the stick thus Iormed is 2 5 7
3.2. Multiplication ( or or *)
Multiplication is the second basic operation oI arithmetic. Multiplication
also combines two numbers into a single number, the product. The two original
numbers are called the multiplier and the multiplicand, sometimes both simply
called factors.
4
Multiplication is best viewed as a scaling operation. II the numbers are
imagined as lying in a line, multiplication by a number, say x, greater than 1 is the
same as stretching everything away Irom 0 uniIormly, in such a way that the
number 1 itselI is stretched to where x was. Similarly, multiplying by a number
less than 1 can be imagined as squeezing towards 0. (Again, in such a way that 1
goes to the multiplicand.)
Multiplication is commutative and associative; Iurther it is distributive
over addition and subtraction. The multiplicative identity is 1, that is, multiplying
any number by 1 yields that same number. Also, the multiplicative inverse is the
reciprocal oI any number (except 0; 0 is the only number without a multiplicative
inverse), that is, multiplying the reciprocal oI any number by the number itselI
yields the multiplicative identity.
The product oI a and b is written as a b or a b. When a or b are
expressions not written simply with digits, it is also written by simple
juxtaposition: ab. In computer programming languages and soItware packages in
which one can only use characters normally Iound on a keyboard, it is oIten
written with an asterisk: a * b.
3.3. Subtraction (-)
Subtraction is the opposite oI addition. Subtraction Iinds the difference
between two numbers, the minuend minus the subtrahend. II the minuend is larger
than the subtrahend, the diIIerence is positive; iI the minuend is smaller than the
subtrahend, the diIIerence is negative; iI they are equal, the diIIerence is 0.
Subtraction is neither commutative nor associative. Eor that reason, it is
oIten helpIul to look at subtraction as addition oI the minuend and the opposite oI
the subtrahend, that is a b a (b). When written as a sum, all the properties
oI addition hold.
There are several methods Ior calculating results, some oI which are
particularly advantageous to machine calculation. Eor example, digital computers
3
employ the method oI two's complement. OI great importance is the counting up
method by which change is made. Suppose an amount P is given to pay the
required amount Q, with P greater than Q. Rather than perIorming the subtraction
P Q and counting out that amount in change, money is counted out starting at Q
and continuing until reaching P. Although the amount counted out must equal the
result oI the subtraction P Q, the subtraction was never really done and the
value oI P Q might still be unknown to the change-maker.
[Link] ( or /)
Division is essentially the opposite oI multiplication. Division Iinds the
quotient oI two numbers, the dividend divided by the divisor. Any dividend
divided by 0 is undeIined. Eor positive numbers, iI the dividend is larger than the
divisor, the quotient is greater than 1, otherwise it is less than 1 (a similar rule
applies Ior negative numbers). The quotient multiplied by the divisor always
yields the dividend.
Division is neither commutative nor associative. As it is helpIul to look at
subtraction as addition, it is helpIul to look at division as multiplication oI the
dividend times the reciprocal oI the divisor, that is a b a
1

b
. When written as
a product, it obeys all the properties oI multiplication.
4. Decimal Arithmetic
Decimal representation reIers exclusively, in common use, to the written
numeral system employing arabic numerals as the digits Ior a radix 10 ("decimal")
positional notation; however, any numeral system based on powers oI 10, e.g.,
Greek, Cyrillic, Roman, or Chinese numerals may conceptually be described as
"decimal notation" or "decimal representation".
Modern methods Ior Iour Iundamental operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division) were Iirst devised by Brahmagupta oI India. This was
known during medieval Europe as "Modus Indoram" or Method oI the Indians.
6
Positional notation (also known as "place-value notation") reIers to the
representation or encoding oI numbers using the same symbol Ior the diIIerent
orders oI magnitude (e.g., the "ones place", "tens place", "hundreds place") and,
with a radix point, using those same symbols to represent Iractions (e.g., the
"tenths place", "hundredths place"). Eor example, 507.36 denotes 5 hundreds
(10
2
), plus 0 tens (10
1
), plus 7 units (10
0
), plus 3 tenths (10
1
) plus 6 hundredths
(10
2
).
The concept oI 0 as a number comparable to the other basic digits is
essential to this notation, as is the concept oI 0's use as a placeholder, and as is the
deIinition oI multiplication and addition with 0. The use oI 0 as a placeholder and,
thereIore, the use oI a positional notation is Iirst attested to in the Jain text Irom
India entitled the Lokavibhaga, dated 458 AD and it was only in the early
13th century that these concepts, transmitted via the scholarship oI the Arabic
world, were introduced into Europe by Eibonacci
|9|
using the HinduArabic
numeral system.
Algorism comprises all oI the rules Ior perIorming arithmetic
computations using this type oI written numeral. Eor example, addition produces
the sum oI two arbitrary numbers. The result is calculated by the repeated addition
oI single digits Irom each number that occupies the same position, proceeding
Irom right to leIt. An addition table with ten rows and ten columns displays all
possible values Ior each sum. II an individual sum exceeds the value 9, the result
is represented with two digits. The rightmost digit is the value Ior the current
position, and the result Ior the subsequent addition oI the digits to the leIt
increases by the value oI the second (leItmost) digit, which is always one. This
adjustment is termed a carrv oI the value 1.
The process Ior multiplying two arbitrary numbers is similar to the process
Ior addition. A multiplication table with ten rows and ten columns lists the results
Ior each pair oI digits. II an individual product oI a pair oI digits exceeds 9, the
carrv adjustment increases the result oI any subsequent multiplication Irom digits
7
to the leIt by a value equal to the second (leItmost) digit, which is any value Irom
1 to 8 (9 9 81). Additional steps deIine the Iinal result.
The creation oI a correct process Ior multiplication relies on the
relationship between values oI adjacent digits. The value Ior any single digit in a
numeral depends on its position. Also, each position to the leIt represents a value
ten times larger than the position to the right. In mathematical terms, the exponent
Ior the radix (base) oI 10 increases by 1 (to the leIt) or decreases by 1 (to the
right). ThereIore, the value Ior any arbitrary digit is multiplied by a value oI the
Iorm 10
n
with integer n. The list oI values corresponding to all possible positions
Ior a single digit is written as ..., 10
2
, 10, 1, 10
1
, 10
2
, ...}.
Repeated multiplication oI any value in this list by 10 produces another
value in the list. In mathematical terminology, this characteristic is deIined as
closure, and the previous list is described as closed under multiplication. It is the
basis Ior correctly Iinding the results oI multiplication using the previous
technique. This outcome is one example oI the uses oI number theory.
The Iollowing will be the example oI the elaboration oI addition and
multiplication operation under the decimal arithmetic or Arabic Numerals:
4.1. Addition with Arabic Numerals
The Convenience oI the Arabic system is due to the Iact that it is clearly
devised positional notation. That is we need only ten symbols or digits
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, other numbers being written as combinations oI these in which
the position oI each digit tells us how it is to be interpreted; thus
S4S = S 1u + 4 1u + S
While SS4 = S 1u + S 1u + 4.
8
A number expressed in positional notation is essentiallt a sum oI terms,
each term being a power oI ten multiplied by a coeIIicient which is one oI the
digits Irom 0 to 9 inclusive. The powers oI ten occur in descending order. In
school, we spoke oI the 'units place, 'tens place. 'hundreds place, and so on.
Eor example, suppose we add 378 and 145 as we learned to do it in school:
Eirst we add 8 and 5, then we obtained 13. The 3 is the units while 1 is added to 4
and 7 equals 12. The 2 is the tens and again 1 is added to 3 and 1 equals 5
(hundreds). All we have to do next is just combine 3 (unit), 2(tens) and 5
(hundreds) become 523.
Let us examine more closely the reasons Ior the correctness oI this
scheme. This will become apparent iI we express these numbers in powers oI ten
and add them by using only Iamiliar postulates oI algebra. We want the sum
(S 1u + 7 1u + 8) + (1 1u + 4 1u + S).
By the generalized associative law we can remove parentheses and by the
commutative and generalized associative laws Ior addition we obtain
(S 1u + 1 1u ) + (7 1u + 4 1u) + (8 + S).
The generalized distributive law then allows us to write
(S + 1)1u + (7 + 4)1u + (8 + S)
Or 4 1u + 11 1u + 1S.
This is not yet in positional notation since the coeIIicients oI some terms
are greater than 9. Hence we write,
4 1u + (1u + 1)1u +(1u + S),
Which by the generalized distributive and associative laws, becomes
(4 1u + 1u ) + (1u + 1u) + S,
9
Using the generalized distributive law again we have
(4 + 1)1u + (1 + 1)1u + S = S 1u + 2 1u + S = S2S.
[Link] with Arabic Numerals
In the same way with the addition, let us examine the process oI
multiplication.
Consider the Iollowing example
4S 24 = 1u8u
Now let us derive this result Irom the postulates. We want the product
(4 1u + S)(2 1u + 4).
Regarding the Iirst parenthesis as a single quantity Ior the moment, the
distributive law allows us to write
(4 1u + S)2 1u + (4 1u + S)4.
Using the generalized distributive law we have
4 1u 2 1u + S 2 1u + 4 1u 4 + S 4.
By the commutative law Ior multiplication, we have
4 2 1u 1u + S 2 1u + 4 4 1u + S 4
= 8 1u + 1u + 16 1u + 2 1u
= (8 + 1) 1u + (16 + 2) 1u
= 9 1u + (1u + 8) 1u
= 9 1u + 1 1u + 8 1u
= (9 + 1) 1u + 8 1u
10
= 1 1u + u 1u + 8 1u + u = 1u8u.
Notice the importance oI the rather sophisticated invention oI a symbol Ior
zero in positional notation. Without it, we would have diIIiculty in distinguishing
between 1080, 108, 180, 1800, and 18. The process oI subtraction and division
might be similarly analyzed but it will not done in this paper.
ReIIerences
Richardson, M. (1950). Fundamentals of Mathematics (p. 166168). MacMillan
Company. United States oI America
Tiro, M.A., et al. Pengenalan Teori Bilangan (p. 6475). Andira Publisher.
Makassar, Indonesia
[Link] Accessed 19th uecember 2013 19:09.