Dislocation Theory
Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms
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1. Introduction -he 1ey idea of the chapter is that p astic deformation is due to the motion of a arge num2er of dis ocations. -he motion is ca ed s ip. -hus/ the strength 3resistance to deformation4 can 2e impro5ed 2y putting o2stac es to s ip. 2. Basic Concepts #is ocations can 2e edge dislocations, screw dislocations and e6ist com2ination of the t7o 3Ch. !.!4. -heir motion 3s ip4 occurs 2y se8uentia 2ond 2rea1ing and 2ond reforming 3)ig. '.14. -he num2er of dis ocations per unit 5o ume is the dislocation density/ in a p ane they are measured per unit area. 3. Characteristics of Dislocations -here is strain around a dis ocation 7hich inf uences ho7 they interact 7ith other dis ocations/ impurities/ etc. -here iscompression near the e6tra p ane 3higher atomic density4 and tension fo o7ing the dis ocation ine 3)ig. '.!4 !. Dislocations interact among themselves (Fig. 7. !. 9hen they are in the same p ane/ they repe if they ha5e the same sign and annihi ate if they ha5e opposite signs 3 ea5ing 2ehind a perfect crysta 4. In genera / 7hen dis ocations are c ose and their strain fie ds add to a arger 5a ue/ they repe / 2ecause 2eing c ose increases the potentia energy 3it ta1es energy to strain a region of the materia 4. The num"er of dislocations increases dramatically during plastic deformation. Dislocations spa#n from e$isting dislocations% and from defects% grain "oundaries and surface irregularities. ". Slip Systems In single crystals there are preferred planes #here dislocations move (slip planes!. There they do not move in any direction% "ut in preferred crystallographic directions (slip direction!. The set of slip planes and directions constitute slip systems. The slip planes are those of highest pac&ing density. 'o# do #e e$plain this( Since the distance "et#een atoms is shorter than the average% the distance perpendicular to the plane has to "e longer than average. Being relatively far apart% the atoms can move more easily #ith respect to the atoms of the
ad)acent plane. (*e did not discuss direction and plane nomenclature for slip systems.! BCC and FCC crystals have more slip systems% that is more #ays for dislocation to propagate. Thus% those crystals are more ductile than 'C+ crystals ('C+ crystals are more "rittle!. ,. Slip in Single Crystals - tensile stress #ill have components in any plane that is not perpendicular to the stress. These components are resolved shear stresses. Their magnitude depends on orientation (see Fig. 7.7!. . / cos cos If the shear stress reaches the critical resolved shear stress [Link]% slip (plastic deformation! can start. The stress needed is0 y/ [Link] 1 (cos cos !ma$ at the angles at #hich [Link] is a ma$imum. The minimum stress needed for yielding is #hen / / 2 degrees0 y/2 [Link]. Thus% dislocations #ill occur first at slip planes oriented close to this angle #ith respect to the applied stress (Figs. 7.3 and 7.4!. ,. +lastic Deformation of +olycrystalline Materials Slip directions vary from crystal to crystal. *hen plastic deformation occurs in a grain% it #ill "e constrained "y its neigh"ors #hich may "e less favora"ly oriented. -s a result% polycrystalline metals are stronger than single crystals (the e$ception is the perfect single crystal% as in #his&ers.! 7. Deformation "y T#inning This topic is not included. Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals 5eneral principles. -"ility to deform plastically depends on a"ility of dislocations to move. Strengthening consists in hindering dislocation motion. *e discuss the methods of grain6si7e reduction% solid6solution alloying and strain hardening. These are for single6phase metals. *e discuss others #hen treating alloys. 8rdinarily% strengthening reduces ductility. 3. Strengthening "y 5rain Si7e .eduction This is "ased on the fact that it is difficult for a dislocation to pass into another grain% especially if it is very misaligned. -tomic disorder at the "oundary causes discontinuity in slip planes. For high6angle grain "oundaries% stress at end of slip plane may trigger ne# dislocations in ad)acent grains. Small angle grain "oundaries are not effective in "loc&ing dislocations. The finer the grains, the larger the area of grain boundaries that impedes dislocation motion. 5rain6si7e reduction usually improves toughness as #ell. 9sually% the yield strength varies #ith grain si7e d according to0
y / : ; ky / d<1=
5rain si7e can "e controlled "y the rate of solidification and "y plastic deformation. *. Solid6Solution Strengthening -dding another element that goes into interstitial or su"stitutional positions in a solution increases strength. The impurity atoms cause lattice strain (Figs. 7.<7 and 7.<3! #hich can >anchor> dislocations. This occurs #hen the strain caused "y the alloying element compensates that of the dislocation% thus achieving a state of lo# potential energy. It costs strain energy for the dislocation to move a#ay from this state (#hich is li&e a potential #ell!. The scarcity of energy at lo# temperatures is #hy slip is hindered. +ure metals are almost al#ays softer than their alloys. 1+. Strain 'ardening Ductile metals become stronger when they are deformed plastically at temperatures well below the melting point (cold #or&ing!. (This is different from hot #or&ing is the shaping of materials at high temperatures #here large deformation is possi"le.! Strain hardening (#or& hardening! is the reason for the elastic recovery discussed in Ch. ,.3. The reason for strain hardening is that the dislocation density increases #ith plastic deformation (cold #or&! due to multiplication. The average distance "et#een dislocations then decreases and dislocations start "loc&ing the motion of each one. The measure of strain hardening is the percent cold #or& (?C*!% given "y the relative reduction of the original area% A: to the final value Ad 0 ?C* / <:: (A:@Ad!1A . !ecovery, recrystalli"ation and #rain #rowth <=. +lastic deformation causes <! change in grain si7e% =! strain hardening% A! increase in the dislocation density. .estoration to the state "efore cold6#or& is done "y heating through t#o processes0 recovery and recrystalli7ation. These may "e follo#ed "y grain gro#th. 13. .ecovery 'eating increased diffusion enhanced dislocation motion relieves internal strain energy and reduces the num"er of dislocation. The electrical and thermal conductivity are restored to the values e$isting "efore cold #or&ing. 1!. .ecrystalli7ation Strained grains of cold6#or&ed metal are replaced% upon heating% "y more regularly6spaced grains. This occurs through short6range diffusion ena"led "y the high temperature. Since recrystalli7ation occurs "y diffusion% the important parameters are "oth temperature and time. The material "ecomes softer% #ea&er% "ut more ductile (Fig. 7.==!. .ecrystalli7ation temperature0 is that at #hich the process is complete in one hour. It is typically <1A to <1= of the melting temperature. It falls as the ?C* is increased. Belo# a >critical deformation>% recrystalli7ation does not occur.
< . 5rain 5ro#th The gro#th of grain si7e #ith temperature can occur in all polycrystalline materials. It occurs "y migration of atoms at grain "oundaries "y diffusion% thus grain gro#th is faster at higher temperatures. The >driving force> is the reduction of energy% #hich is proportional to the total area. Big grains gro# at the e$pense of the small ones.
$mportant Terms%
Cold #or&ing Critical resolved Shear stress Dislocation density 5rain gro#th Battice strain .ecovery .ecrystalli7ation .ecrystalli7ation temperature .esolved shear stress Slip Slip system Strain hardening Solid6solution strengthening 666666666666666666666666666666666666666666