Chapter 2

Erbium Doped Fibre

Ampliers
The use of erbium doped bre for amplication was rst reported in
1987[1, 2, 3]. The operation, different congurations and theoretical
background of Erbium Doped Fibre Ampliers (EDFAs), are presented
in this chapter to supply background information for the design of the
integrated tuneable equalizing lter. EDFAs have a non-uniform gain
over the 1500 nm to 1600 nm band, with a peak centred at approximately
1532 nm. The different gain equalizing techniques employed to remove
this peak are examined in section 2.3. Section 2.4 discusses the gain
equalizer previously developed at the COCS.
13
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 14
2.1 Principle of operation of EDFAs
2.1.1 Energy levels and lifetimes
EDFAs consist of optical bre of which the core has been doped with
erbium ions. The electrons of the erbium doped bre can be excited to
higher energy levels by pumping with a shorter wavelength light. The
amplication takes place in both the C band (1530 nm - 1560 nm)
as well as the L band (1570 nm - 1610 nm), which makes erbium an
excellent choice for an optical amplier. Pump wavelengths of 980 nm
or 1480 nm are usually used to excite erbiums quantum levels, as this
will not lead to great losses in the optical bre. The pump supplies
energy to the electrons in an active medium, raising them to a higher
level as shown in Figure 2-1.
Figure 2.1: Erbium energy level diagram and stimulated emission
I
I
I
15/2
13/2
11/2
4
4
4
1480 nm
980 nm
1550 nm
}
}
Slow decay
10 ms
Fast decay
1 us
An electromagnetic eld may excite an atoms electrons, which are in
the ground state, to higher energy levels [4, 5, 6]. These higher en-
ergy levels are unstable and the electrons will tend to fall back down
to the ground state. If the time it takes for the electrons to fall back
to the ground state from a certain energy level is very long compared
to the lifetime of the previous states that led to this level, a metastable
band is formed. Electrons will thus accumulate on this energy level. If
the number of electrons in the metastable band exceeds the number of
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 15
electrons in the ground state, population inversion has occurred. This
is necessary for amplication to take place. The level of population in-
version is directly proportional to the amount of injected energy (pump
power).
Incoming signal photons will now trigger the excited ions to drop to
the ground state and emit a new photon of the same energy, wave vec-
tor and polarization as the incoming signal photon. This process is
called stimulated emission. Sometimes the excited ions can fall back
to the ground state without any trigger, resulting in photons being re-
leased that do not amplify the signal. These photons are then amplied
by the remaining erbium doped bre. This spontaneous emission is
referred to as Amplied Spontaneous Emission (ASE) noise and is un-
desirable. It can however be kept to a minimum by designing the EDFA
system correctly. Some ions in the ground state can also absorb a por-
tion of the incoming pump photons which will raise these ions to the
metastable band. This process is called stimulated absorption.
The best gain characteristics are achieved in the 1530 nm to 1560 nm
range, after which the gain will steadily decrease until it reaches 0 dB
at 1616 nm .
2.1.2 EDFA congurations and pump wavelengths
Figure 2-2 shows an example of an EDFA. A length of erbium-doped
bre (EDF), usually shorter that 100 m, is fusion spliced to the other
components as shown in the gure.
Three types of pumping schemes exist, namely forward (co-directional),
backward (counter-directional) and dual (bi-directional) pumping, as
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 16
Figure 2.2: Example of an EDFA
WDM
coupler
Pump laser
WDM
coupler
EDF
Signal in
Isolator Isolator
Signal out
shown in Figure 2-3. A forward-pumped scheme will ensure high gain
and low ASE noise, since a high population inversion at the input of the
EDFA will ensure less spontaneous emission[4]. On the other hand, a
backward-pumped scheme will have high ASE noise but also high out-
put power. A dual-pumped scheme combines the two schemes, thus
providing an optimized version. Often a dual-pumped scheme will be
employed with, for example, gain equalizing components placed in be-
tween.
Another factor inuencing the EDFAs performance, is the pump wave-
length used. As was shown in gure 2.1, a pump laser emitting 980
nm photons excites the electrons from the ground state to the
4
I
11/2
band. These photons decay quickly and accumulate in the
4
I
13/2
band.
For 1480-nm pump photons, the electrons are excited to the top of the
metastable band and quickly fall back to the higher populated lower
end of the metastable band. A pump wavelength of 980 nm provides
high population inversion, leading to high gain and low noise. However,
a 1480-nm pump wavelength will provide a better power conversion ef-
ciency.
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 17
Figure 2.3: EDFA pumping schemes: (a) co-directional pumping (b)
counter-directional pumping and (c) dual pumping. WSC: wavelength
selective coupler.
WSC
WSC
WSC WSC
EDF
EDF
EDF
Pump
LD
Pump
LD
Pump
LD
Pump
LD
Pump
Pump Pump
Pump
Signal in
Signal in
Signal in
Signal out
Signal out
Signal out
Isolator
Isolator
Isolator Isolator
(a)
(b)
(c)
2.1.3 Inuence of Er
3+
ion concentration
The Er
3+
-ion doping of the bre will have an inuence on the ampli-
ers characteristics. If the doping level is low, the ground state may
become depleted if the number of available ions is fewer than the pump
photons. So in order to obtain high gain, high doping is necessary.
However, a high doping level has some disadvantages. Concentration
saturation can take place when non-radiative cross relaxation between
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 18
neighbouring erbium ions decreases the population in the metastable
band. The concentration attainable in a specic glass can also vary
and may lead to crystallization in the glass matrix if it is too high[15].
2.1.4 Advantages
EDFAs offer several advantages. They are commercially available in
both the C and L bands and offer high gain with relatively low noise
gure. They are polarization insensitive. Undoubtedly the biggest ad-
vantage is that EDFAs make the simultaneous amplication of several
wavelength division multiplexed signals possible and they are immune
to cross talk. However EDFAs add complexity to a system, as a pump
laser and integration with other components are needed. The unequal
gain spectrum of the EDFA also necessitates the use of a gain equalizer.
2.2 Modelling EDFAs
As stated above, ions in the ground state are excited to higher energy
levels by injected energy. The wavelength dependent absorption cross
section
a
(), describes the probability of this occurring. The prob-
ability of stimulated emission taking place at a specic wavelength is
described by the emission cross section
e
() . These values can be cal-
culated by measuring certain bre parameters, such as the absorption
spectrum
k
, the gain spectrum g

k
, the saturation power of the bre
P
sat
k
and the bre background loss l
k
for the k
th
optical beam propa-
gating in the amplier[7]. They are then related to the emission and
absorption cross sections by the following equations:
g

k
=
ek

k
n
t
(2.1)
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 19

k
=
ak

k
n
t
(2.2)
P
sat
k
=
hv
k
A
eff
(
k
+g
k
)
=
hv
k

k
+g

k
(2.3)
where n
t
represents the total concentration of the erbium ions, v
k
is
the k
th
- beams frequency, h is plancks constant, = b
2
eff
n
t
/ and
represents the metastable lifetime. The overlap integral for the n
1
and
n
2
populations is given by

k,i
(z) =

2
0

0
i
k
(r,) n
i
(r,,z) r dr d
n
i
i = 1, 2, t (2.4)
with i(r, ) the normalized intensity distribution and n
i
the mean den-
sity of erbium ions given in [7]. Using the overlap integral, the equa-
tions for the spectrally resolved, spatially integrated model for a beam
travelling in the forward direction is given by the ratio of the mean
density of erbium ions in the excited state and total mean density of
erbium ions:
n
2
n
t
=

P
k
(z)
k
hv
k

1+

P
k
(z)(
k
+g
k
)
hv
k

(2.5)
dP
k
dz
= (
k
+ g

k
)
n
2
n
t
P
k
(z) + g

k
n
2
n
t
mhv
k
v
k
(
k
+ l
k
)P
k
(z) (2.6)
Where P
k
(z) is the signal power at a specic wavelength and position
z along the bre, m is the number of polarization modes supported by
the bre, v
k
is the frequency bandwidth and h is Plancks constant.
A combination of the absorption and emission cross sections can also
describe the spectral dependence of the amplier gain, given by [3]:
G
dB
() = 4.343 {n
2

e
() + n
1

a
()} L (2.7)
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 20
Figure 2-4 shows an example of an EDFA gain spectrum. The simu-
lation consisted of a 7 m length of erbium doped bre. 52 wavelength
division multiplexed channels, with 13 W and 130 W power per chan-
nel respectively, was used to illustrate the signal-power dependence. A
pump wavelength of 980 nm with 200 mW power was used.
Figure 2.4: EDFA gain spectrum
1520 1525 1530 1535 1540 1545 1550 1555 1560 1565 1570
25
27.5
30
32.5
35
37.5
40
42.5
45
G
a
i
n

(
d
B
)
130 W
13 W
Wavelength (nm)
2.3 Gain equalizing schemes for EDFAs
The wavelength dependence of the gain prole inuences multi-channel
systems the most, where the signal-to-noise ratio between the differ-
ent channels will not be consistent and may be unacceptable in some
channels. The usable optical bandwidth will thus be reduced and fewer
channels made available. By implementing some gain equalization
technique, the usable bandwidth will be increased. Several different
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 21
gain attening techniques have been proposed. They are summarized
in table 2-1 [9]. A discussion of some of these techniques follows.
Table 2.1: Summary of gain attening methods[9]
Glass composition Equalizers Hybrid ampliers
Silica inversion shaping in C and L-band Tapered bre lters[14, 15] Multi-arm silica based C-band
High Al concentration doping Mach-Zehnder lters[22, 25, 26, 27] Multi-arm uoride and silica
silica cooled to 77 K Fabry-Perot lters Cascade amplier: Al co-doping
Fluoride glass host (EDFFAs)[10, 11, 12] Acousto-optic lters EDFA and Raman amplier
Tellurite glass host Long-period gratings[16, 17, 18, 19]
Fluoride based EDFAs [10, 11, 12] are used mainly because they offer
better gain atness than silica based EDFAs. Here, the silica host of
the EDFA is substituted with a uoride host. Since the gain peak at
1530 nm wavelength is caused by the interactions between the Er
3+
and the silica host, the uoride host ensures a atter gain prole. A
2-dB gain atness over a 28 nm range can be achieved with an EDFFA
[13]. However, uoride based EDFAs have two drawbacks: Their noise
performance is inferior to that of conventional silica based EDFAs and
they require a pump wavelength of 1480 nm due to excited state ab-
sorption (ESA) at 980 nm .
Passive lters include bre Bragg gratings, long-period gratings and
Mach Zehnder interferometers. Passive lters are very popular gain
equalizing devices, as they are very reliable. Constraints are that they
do not offer exibility and that changes in the EDFA gain prole can
not be tracked.
Wide-band bre Bragg gratings (FBGs) have been shown to improve the
gain atness of an EDFA considerably. By using an optical isolator (OI)
followed by a FBG [14], a constant gain of 22.4 dB with a gain excursion
of 3 dB over 32 nm can be obtained. By writing several side-tap FBGs
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 22
in a short length of optical bre, a gain variation of 1.6 dB over a 33 nm
bandwidth has also been demonstrated [15].
Long-period gratings (LPGs) have frequently been implemented as gain
equalizing lters [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. By tailoring the loss charac-
teristics of the LPG, it can be used to remove the gain peak of the EDFA
in the 1530 nm wavelength region. Ideally, the transmission spectrum
of the LPG should inversely match that of the EDFA, thus attening the
gain spectrum of the EDFA.
It has been shown that by using one LPG together with a phase-shifted
LPG the EDFA gain ripple can be reduced to approximately 0.9 dB, and
the 3-dB bandwidth of the attened EDFA improved to 46 nm from 18 nm
beforehand[21]. What makes LPGs attractive devices for gain equaliza-
tion is their ease of fabrication, little back reection, reliability and
stability.
Mach Zehnder interferometers (MZIs) [22] can also be used for pas-
sive gain equalization. This is achieved by combining an EDFA system
with a correctly designed MZ lter. Here, a MZ lter is placed after
each amplier, followed by a long-pass optical lter to remove ampli-
ed spontaneous emission (ASE) noise.
As the gain prole of an EDFA isnt constant, but changes as EDFA
conditions change, a passive gain equalization technique will not al-
ways be sufcient. Changes may occur due to aging of the amplier,
temperature variations and input or pump power uctuations. The
need for a tuneable gain equalizing lter, adapting to changes in the
gain spectrum of the EDFA, exists. Active lters used for this purpose
include tuneable acousto-optic lters (AOTFs) [23, 24], tuneable MZIs
[25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30] and a tuneable LPG [8] that will be discussed
in section 2.4.
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 23
The principle of operation of an AOTF is the conversion of core modes to
lossy cladding modes. This is achieved by periodic micro-bends formed
by acoustic waves generated by piezoelectric transducers. These waves
are launched into the single mode bre by a silicon glass horn. Each
AOTF was operated with three RF signals at different frequencies. Dif-
ferent notches were produced in the transmission spectrum by each of
the RF signals. The EDFA was gain attened by tuning the RF signals
frequencies until the required transmission spectrum was obtained.
An example of a tuneable MZI lter conguration is shown in gure
2-5. An MZI has a sinusoidal shape transmittance with a period deter-
mined by the length difference of the 2 paths. The centre wavelength
of the MZI can be tuned by a phase shifter in one of the paths. The
tuneable couplers at 1 and 3 are symmetric MZIs with phase shifters.
By tuning the phase shifters the transmittance ratio of the couplers
can be controlled, thus controlling the MZIs extinction ratio.
MZ lters can be manufactured at low production costs and can be
made polarization-insensitive by using square waveguides. The major
drawback of these devices are large losses. As they have an inherent
cosine shape, they are mainly used together with other technologies.
Figure 2.5: Tuneable MZI gain equalizer
L
1
3
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 24
2.4 The tuneable LPG gain equalizer
2.4.1 Experimental setup of the tuneable LPG
The experimental setup for the gain equalizing lter developed at the
COCS using a tuneable LPG is shown in gure 2-6 [8]. The LPGs
attenuation band is adjusted (shifted) by using a glycerin liquid, until
it matches the EDFAs gain peak in the 1532 nm vicinity.
Varying the coupling ratio of the tuneable coupler K will vary the amount
of signal propagating through the LPG shown in the one arm of the MZI.
The amount of attenuation of the gain peak can thus be increased or
decreased as required by varying the coupling ratio. The output cou-
pler K
2
recombines the two arms of the MZI and causes a 3-dB loss.
Figure 2.6: Tuneable LPG gain equalizing lter
3 dB 3 dB 3 dB
K K
2
LPG
2.4.2 Theoretical transfer function of the tuneable LPG
The transmission of the tuneable equalizing lter (TEF) can be de-
scribed by the following equation [8]:
T
TEF
() = (1 k
2
)

1 + k

k
2
1k
2
T
LPG
() 1

(2.8)
The wavelength-dependent transmission of the LPG, T
LPG
() in equa-
tion 2.8, is given by
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 25
T
LPG
() = cos
2
(L) +

2

2
sin
2
(L) (2.9)
With =

and =

2
+
2
. L represents the grating length,
is the coupling coefcient and is the period of the grating. The
transmission of the LPG was simulated for standard single mode bre,
as shown in gure 2-7. Chapter 3 contains details of this simulation.
Using this transmission spectrum, it is possible to calculate the trans-
mission of the TEF. Figure 2-8 shows the change in the TEF atten-
uation attainable by varying the tuneable coupler Ks coupling ratio,
calculated using equation 2.8.
Figure 2.7: Example transmission spectrum of an LPG
1500 1510 1520 1530 1540 1550 1560
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

B
a
r

T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

(
%
)
Wavelength (nm)
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 26
Figure 2.8: Transmission spectrum of the TEF
1.51 1.515 1.52 1.525 1.53 1.535 1.54 1.545 1.55
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Wavelength (m)
A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

(
d
B
)
K=0
K=0.2
K=0.4
K=0.6
K=0.8
K=1
2.4.3 Experimental implementation of the tuneable LPG
The LPG tuneable gain equalizer has previously been implemented in
optical bre technology to atten EDFA gain. The measured experi-
mental output of the TEF for various coupling ratios of the tuneable
coupler is shown in gure 2.9 [8].
The ASE power spectral density of an ASE source, consisting of a 16
m length of EDF pumped with a 980 nm wavelength laser diode with
output pump current of 150 mA and signal input power 30 dBm, was
measured[8]. Figure 2.10 shows this ASE spectra with and without the
TEF. The main advantage of the tuneable long-period grating lter is
the tuneability over a wide range of pump power.
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 27
Figure 2.9: Experimental determined relative attenuation spectra[8]
Figure 2.10: EDFA and attened gain spectrum[8]
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 28
2.4.4 The Mach-Zehnder interferometer
From the experimental results presented, it can be seen that the tune-
able equalizing lter operated as predicted from theory. However, the
MZI that forms part of the device leads to excess noise due to interfer-
ence. This interference noise is not important if the coherence length
of the source is short.
The coherence length of a wave is the space over which the phase of
the wave can be predicted, thus the length over which fringes are still
visible. It is given by
L
c
=

2

(2.10)
For an ASE source, the coherence length will be very short as is
relatively large and interference effects can be ignored. For single mode
lasers such as distributed feedback (DFB) lasers the spectral width
(linewidth) is very narrow, generally much smaller than 0.1 nm. The
coherence length will now be very large.
If a path-mismatch between the interferometer arms is introduced that
is greater than the coherence length of the DFB laser, the interference
noise will be reduced. It will, however, also lead to distortion of the
data on the carrier as the pulses will broaden and can even split into
two separate pulses.
To overcome the inuence of the MZI interference noise, an integrated-
optic version of the tuneable equalizing lter is proposed to provide
more stable phase characteristics. Environmental effects will then be
reduced, as the MZI arms will be in close proximity.
CHAPTER 2. ERBIUM DOPED FIBRE AMPLIFIERS 29
2.5 Conclusion
An introduction to EDFAs was given in this chapter. The amplication
process of erbium doped bre was described as well as the inuence
of the Er
3+
-ion concentration, various pumping schemes and pump
wavelengths that can be employed. The benets of EDFAs were also
presented. To compensate for the unequal gain prole of EDFAs, var-
ious gain equalizing methods have been proposed. A brief overview of
these methods was provided. The tuneable LPG gain equalizer that was
previously developed at the COCS was discussed. The design of an in-
tegrated optic version of this tuneable gain equalizing lter is given in
chapter 3.
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