Basic Oil-Field Chemistry Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures Matter is anything that possesses mass and occupies space.

Matter is made up of elements, compounds, and mixtures. An element is the simplest form of matter. There are over 100 known elements or combinations of elements. Table 3-1 illustrates the five most abundant elements on earth. Elements in the free or uncombined state make up only a fraction of matter. Most matter exists as compounds or mixtures of compounds. A compound is a more complex form of matter made up of chemically combined elements. Molecules of compounds are identical to each other in composition and properties. Typical compounds are methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), sodium chloride (NaCl), and water (H2O). A mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds that are mixed physically but still maintain their chemical identity. Mixtures can always be separated into their component parts. Typical mixtures are natural gas, air, oil, coal, or any alloys. Five Most Abundant Elements Element Percent Oxygen 49_2 Silicon 25_7 Aluminum 7_5 Iron 4_7 Calcium 3_3 All others 9_6 Total 100_0 Atomic and Molecular Weights An atom is the smallest part of an element that can be divided and still retain all the properties of that element. An atom is the smallest unit of matter that can enter into combination with itself or atoms of other elements. The three basic particles of atoms are Protons: particle consisting of a positive electrical charge located in the nucleus of the atom. Neutrons: particle with no electrical charge located in the nucleus of the atom. Electrons: particle consisting of a negative electrical charge located in various orbits and rotating around the nucleus of the atom. Protons and neutrons weigh essentially the same. Electrons are smaller, weigh less, and exert electrical charges equal but opposite to that of protons. Characteristics of atoms are All atoms contain the same number of electrons as they do protons; thus, all atoms are electrically neutral. Each element has an atomic number, which indicates the number of protons as well as the number of electrons in an atom. Each atom has an atomic weight that approximates the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the atom. Since nearly all the weight of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, the electron can be considered weightless.

Atomic weights are relative weights of one atom to another. For example, hydrogen has an atomic weight equal to 1, oxygen 16, carbon 12, and sulfur 32. A molecule is the smallest unit of matter formed by the combination of atoms. A molecule can be a combination of two atoms of the same element as in most gases or different atoms to form complex molecules as in hydrocarbons. The molecular weight is the relative weight of one molecule to another. Elements have different atomic structures because of the varying numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and the electrons orbiting the nucleus. For example, carbon has six protons and six neutrons in the nucleus and six electrons orbiting the nucleus (two electrons in the first orbit and four electrons in the second orbit). The number of electrons of an element involved in forming a compound is known as the valence number. Elements have a tendency to lose or gain electrons in the outer orbit of their atom. Those atoms that lose one, two, or three electrons become positively charged or form positive ions. Those atoms that gain one, two, or three electrons become negatively charged or form negative ions. When an atom gains or loses electrons in an outer orbit and becomes an ion, it changes the properties it possessed as an atom. Compounds are formed by the electrovalent union when a positively charged ion (sodium) and a negatively charged ion (chlorine) electrostatically attract each other to form a compound (sodium chloride). The molecular weight of a compound is the sum of the atomic weight of the various atoms making up that compound. Covalent union occurs when atoms share electrons. For example, carbon, which has four electrons in its outer orbit, shares each of its electrons with four hydrogen atoms, each of which is seeking one electron to complete its outer orbit. This union forms the compound methane (CH4). Most atoms, such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, etc., share their electrons with a similar atom to form elemental gases of hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), and chlorine (Cl2). These gases exist in nature as a covalent union. Hydrocarbon Nomenclature Hydrocarbons are covalent compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Atoms combine in a number of ways to satisfy the valence requirements. Hydrocarbons are separated into families of homologous series. Carbon atoms link together to form chains and/or ring structures. Natural gas and crude oil consist primarily of straight chain hydrocarbon molecules. Most of the hydrocarbons of concern fall in the paraffin series. Natural gas consists of methane (CH4), which is the main component, and other components, including ethane, propane, n-butane, i-butane, n-pentane, i-pentane, hexanes, heptanes, octanes, and heavier hydrocarbons. Hexanes and heavier are referred to as hexane plus. Natural gas also includesdiluents of carbon dioxides, nitrogen, and smaller quantities of hydrogen sulfide, water vapor, and oxygen.

Seven Most Common Paraffin Molecules and Their MW Name Molecular Weight Methane 16 Ethane 30 Propane 44 Butane 58 Pentane 72 Hexane 86 Heptane 100

Paraffin Series: (CnH2n+2) Hydrocarbons in this series are saturated, that is, all four carbon bonds are connected either to another carbon atom or to a hydrogen atom, with one such atom for each bond. All names end in ane. The number of hydrogen atoms is two times the number of carbon atoms plus two more for the ends of the chain. Paraffins are the most stable hydrocarbons because all valence bonds are fully satisfied, as indicated by the single line linkage. Each successive molecule is created by adding one carbon and two hydrogens to the previous molecule (refer to Table 3-2). The abbreviations C3 for propane, C4 for butane, etc. are often used. Statements like propane plus fraction (C3+) refer to a mixture composed of propane and larger atoms. When a molecule contains four or more carbon atoms, there are different ways these can be connected without affecting the formula. Compounds that have the same chemical formula but different atomic structure are called isomers. Isomers possess different physical and chemical properties. ParaffinCompounds In upstream oil and gas operations, we are primarily concerned with Paraffin series with 15 or fewer carbon atoms, Nitrogen, Water, Contaminants such as H2S and CO2, Mercury.

Paraffin hydrocarbons are less reactive with other materials than many hydrocarbons. They are conditioned by use of alcohols, glycols, and amines in which they are soluble and react to some degree. Acids and Bases All inorganic compounds of hydrogen, except water and hydroxides, are acids (refer to Table 3-3). They consist of hydrogen combined with an acid radical (anion).

The acidity or alkalinity of a material is measured using a scale known as pH. The scale runs between 0 and 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. Acids have a pH less than 7; bases (alkaline solutions) have a pH greater than 7.