SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSERS: Synchronous Condenser is a synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a mechanical load.

Or in other words we can state that, Unloaded overexcited synchronous motors used to improve power factor are known as Synchronous Condenser. Hydro/gas generators can operate as synchronous condensers. In case of hydro, water supply is blocked and units run with loads of only air friction. Like generators, they can be over-exited or under-exited by varying their field current in order to generate or absorb reactive power, synchronous condensers can continuously regulate reactive power to ensure steady transmission voltage, under varying load conditions. As per CEA [Link] (page no 163) under section 4.3.5 the reactive power capability the over exited rating of the machine is referred to as the synchronous Condenser capability It is the maximum amount of reactive kVA the machine can generate when operating over exited, at rated frequency and voltage, without exceeding the rated temperature rise. kVAR (over excited)=(1.40-rated power factor) x maximum kVA output. Because they are rotating machines with moving parts and auxiliary systems, they may require significantly more maintenance than static alternatives. They also consume real power equal to about 3% of the machines reactive-power rating. That is, a 50- MVAR synchronous condenser requires about 1.5 MW of real power.

Because of their high purchase and operating costs, they have been largely superseded by static var compensators. In recent years the synchronous compensator has been practically ruled out by the SVC, in the case of new installations, due to benefits in cost performance and reliability of the latter. Comparison between Synchronous Condenser and shunt capacitor is explained in the below table:[Link] Synchronous Condenser Shunt Capacitor Synchronous condenser can Shunt capacitor should be associated 1.
supply kVAR equal to its with a reactor rating and can absorb up to performance 100% of its KVA rating to give

that

2. 3.

4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

This has fine control with AVR The output is not limited by the system voltage condition. This gives out its full capacity even when system voltage decreases For short periods the synchronous condenser can supply KVAR in excess of its rating at nominal voltage The full load losses are above 3% of its capacity These cannot be economically deployed at several locations in distribution The synchronous condenser ratings cannot be modular A failure in the synchronous condenser can remove the entire unit ability to produce KVAR. However failures are rare in synchronous condensers compared to capacitors They add to the short circuit current of a system and therefore increase the size of (11kV etc.) breakers in the neighbor-hood. This is a rotating device. Hence the O&M problems are more

This operates in steps The capacitor output is proportional to V2 of the system. Hence its performance decreases under low voltage conditions The capacitor cannot supply more than its capacity at nominal voltage. Its output is proportional to V2. The capacitor losses are about 0.2% The capacitor banks can be deployed at several locations economically in distribution The capacitors are modular. They can be deployed as and when system requirements change A failure of a single fused unit in a bank of capacitors affects only that unit and does not affect the entire bank

9.

The capacitors do not increase the short circuit capacity of the system, as their output is proportional to V2

10.

These are static and simple devices. Hence O&M problems are negligible

Generator reactive power capability

1. A generators output capabilities depend on the thermal limits of various parts of the generator and on system stability limits. Thermal limits are physical limits of materials such as copper, iron and insulation, if the generator overheats, insulation begins to degrade and over time this could result in equipment damage. Increasingly real power output of a generator heats up the armature. Increasing reactive power output heats up the field windings and the armature. 2. Power Generators shall be able to supply or absorb reactive power according to the reactive power capability curve that is defined in

connection agreement and shall perform yearly inspection to ensure that generators can perform according to the reactive power capability curve. 3. To supply reactive power, the generator must increase the magnetic field to raise the voltage it is supplying to the power system; this means increasing the current in the field windings, which is limited by the thermal properties of the metal and insulation. The field current is supplied by the generator exciter, which is a DC power supply connected to the generator. The field current can be quickly adjusted by automatic control or with a dial to change the reactive power supplied or consumed by the generator. 4. At any given field setting, the generator has a specific terminal voltage it is attempting to hold. If the system voltage declines, the generator will inject reactive power into the power system, tending to raise system voltage. If the system voltage rises, the reactive output of the generator will drop and ultimately reactive power will flow into the generator, tending to lower system voltage. 5. The voltage regulator will accentuate this behavior by driving the field current in the appropriate direction to obtain the desired system voltage. Because most of the reactive limits are thermal limits associated with large pieces of equipment, significant short-term extra reactive-power capability usually exists. 7. Stability limits are determined by the ability of the power system to accept delivery of power from the connected generator under a defined set of system conditions including recognized contingencies. All generators connected to a power system operate at the same electrical frequency; if a generator loses synchronism with the rest of the system, it will trip offline to protect itself. 8. Capacitors supply reactive power and have leading power factors, while inductors consume reactive power and have lagging power factors. The convention for generators is the reverse. When the generator is supplying reactive power, it has a lagging power factor and its mode of operation is referred to as overexcited. When a generator consumes reactive power, it has a leading power factor region and is under-excited. 9. The capability-set limits are thermal limits for different parts of the generator, if the generator output approaches these limits, an alarm will notify the generator operator of the problem; if the operator does not

bring the generator back to a safe operating point, the generators protection scheme (relays, circuit breakers, fuses) will operate, resulting in disconnection of the generator from the network; finally, if the protection equipment fails and the operator does not act in time, the generator will overheat, potentially causing equipment damage. Because generators are expensive, generator operators generally will not operate the generator in a way that risks damaging the equipment and losing revenue during repair. 10. The ability of a generator to provide reactive support depends on its real power production which is represented in the form of generator capability curve or D - curve. Figure-1 shows the combined limits on real and reactive production for a typical generator. Like most electric equipment, generators are limited by their current-carrying capability. Near rated voltage, this capability becomes an MVA limit for the armature of the generator rather than a MW limitation, shown as the armature heating limit in the Figure.

Figure-1 GENERATOR CAPABILITY CURVE or D-CURVE

11. At the edges of the D-curve, the opportunity cost of extending generator real or reactive power supply amounts to the millions of rupees that would be needed to replace damaged generator equipment and lost revenue during repair. The characteristics of the generator step-up transformer that connects the generator to the electric transmission system, as well as operational policies of the transmission system, may impose further limits on generator output.

[Link] capability may be extended by the coolant used in the generator. A more efficient coolant allows the generator to dissipate more heat, thereby extending thermal limits. Most large generators are cooled with hydrogen; increasing the hydrogen pressure cools the generator equipment more effectively, increasing the generators capability. SOME PROVISIONS IN THE IEGC (Indian Electricity Grid Code) As per sec 3.5 of IEGC planning criterion general philosophy: Planning Criterion- General philosophy The planning study would assume that all the Generating Units may operate within their reactive capability curves and the network voltage profile shall also be maintained within voltage limits specified. PROVISION IN THE CENTRAL ELECTRICITY AUTHORITY (TECHNICAL STANDARD FOR CONNECTIVITY TO THE GRID) REGULATIONS 2007: Extracts from this standards is as reproduced below for ready reference. Part II: Grid Connectivity Standards applicable to the Generating Units. The units at a generating station proposed to be connected to the grid shall comply with the following requirements besides the general connectivity conditions given in the regulations and general requirements given in part-I of the Schedule:1. New Generation Units Hydro generating units having rated capacity of 50MW and above shall be capable of operating in synchronous condenser mode, where ever feasible. 2. Existing Units For thermal generating unit having rated capacity of 200 MW and above and hydro units having rated capacity of 100 MW and above, the following facilities would be provided at the time of renovation and modernization. (1) Every generating unit shall have Automatic Voltage Regulator. Generators having rated capacity of 100 MW and above shall have Automatic Voltage Regulator with two separate with two separate channels having independent inputs and automatic changeover. IEGC Section 6. Scheduling and Dispatch Code 6.6 Reactive Power and Voltage Control The charge for VArh shall be at the rate of 10 paisa/kVArh w.e.f. 1.4.2010, and this will be applicable between the Regional Entity, except

Generating Stations, and the regional pool account for VAr interchanges. This rate shall be escalated at 0.5paise/kVArh per year hereafter, unless otherwise revised by the Commission. LIMITATIONS IN OPERATING AS SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER: 1. The intake and draft tube gates are to be closed which take will about 7 Hrs. for a machine. The casing water is to be drained which will take about 12 Hrs. for complete drainage. The leakage through the gates should not be more than the capacity of drainage pumps. It requires a minimum time of 20 Hrs. in normal conditions to put the machine as synchronous into service. Again after synchronous condenser operation to bring back into generator mode operation it requires the same duration. There must the sufficient water level in the pondage so as to feed water to the cooling water system. 2. Wastage of water in case of run of river hydro power stations. Whereas it suits the dam based power houses. 3. The overall cost of the Generator-Turbine will increase. 4. kVARh cost (cost for reactive power) is on lower side as compared to kWh cost (cost for active power). Investments in reactive compensation This section will try to answer the question: How much does 1 MVar cost to install and to produce? The table below from (B. Kirby, 1997) gives some numbers. These are, of course, approximate and may vary according to equipment producer and type. Capital and operating costs of reactive power compensation equipment
Equipment type Generator Synchronous condenser Capacitor, reactor Static VAR compensator STATCOM Capital costs ($/kVar) Difficult to separate 30-35 08.-10 45-50 50-55 Operating costs High High Very low Moderate Moderate

CONCLUSION: The components which absorb reactive power are generators and synchronous condenser operated with the leading angle, rectors, loaded transmission line inductance and inductive loads. Reactive power is generated by generators, synchronous condensers operated with the lagging angle, static capacitors, static compensator and the capacitances of the under loaded lines and cables.

The limitation for the synchronous condenser operation MVAR output is with the limitation of armature current, field current, heating and stability. Any, additional output of MVAR if desired will be automatically involve changes in the limits of field, armature current, which in turn means more and bigger winding. Synchronous condensers have been the basic tool for long to look after the VAR balance and to control the voltage of the transmission system. Synchronous condensers through prove good voltage support and the smooth var control suffer from the disadvantage. i. Added inertia, contributing to transient oscillations and increased short circuit level ii. Slow response. Of recent years the use of synchronous condensers has been severely restricted by the increasing use of shunt reactors and static condenser.

Static VAR compensators An SVC combines conventional capacitors and inductors with fast switching capability. Switching takes place in the sub cycle timeframe (i.e., in less than 1/50 of a second), providing a continuous range of control. The range can be designed to span from absorbing to generating reactive power. Advantages include fast, precise regulation of voltage and unrestricted, largely transient-free, capacitor bank switching. Voltage is regulated according to a slope (droop) characteristic. Static VAR compensator could be made up from: TCR (thyristor controlled reactor); TSC (thyristor switched capacitor); TSR (thyristor switched reactor); FC (fixed capacitor); Harmonic filter. Because SVCs use capacitors they suffer from the same degradation in reactive capability as voltage drops. They also do not have the short-term overload capability of generators and synchronous condensers. SVC applications usually require harmonic filters to reduce the amount of harmonics injected into the power system by the thyristor switching. SVCs provide direct control of voltage (C.W. Taylor, 1994); this is very valuable when there is little generation in the load area. The remaining capacitive capability of an SVC is a good indication of proximity to voltage instability. SVCs provide rapid control of temporary overvoltages. But on the other hand SVCs have limited overload capability, because SVC is a capacitor bank at its boost limit. The critical or collapse voltage becomes the

SVC regulated voltage and instability usually occurs once an SVC reaches its boost limit. SVCs are expensive; shunt capacitor banks should first be used to allow unity power factor operation of nearby generators. Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) The STATCOM is a solid-state shunt device that generates or absorbs reactive power and is one member of a family of devices known as flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) devices. The STATCOM is similar to the SVC in response speed, control capabilities, and the use of power electronics. Rather than using conventional capacitors and inductors combined with thyristors, the STATCOM uses self-commutated power electronics to synthesize the reactive power output. Consequently, output capability is generally symmetric, providing as much capability for production as absorption. The solid-state nature of the STATCOM means that, similar to the SVC, the controls can be designed to provide very fast and effective voltage control (B. Kirby, 1997). While not having the short-term overload capability of generators and synchronous condensers, STATCOM capacity does not suffer as seriously as SVCs and capacitors do from degraded voltage. STATCOMs are current limited so their MVAR capability responds linearly to voltage as opposed to the voltage-squared relationship of SVCs and capacitors. This attribute greatly increases the usefulness of STATCOMs in preventing voltage collapse. Series capacitors and reactors Series capacitors compensation is usually applied for long transmission lines and transient stability improvement. Series compensation reduces net transmission line inductive reactance. The reactive generation I2XC compensates for the reactive consumption I2X of the transmission line. Series capacitor reactive generation increases with the current squared, thus generating reactive power when it is most needed. This is a self-regulating nature of series capacitors. At light loads series capacitors have little effect. Shunt capacitors The primary purposes of transmission system shunt compensation near load areas are voltage control and load stabilization. Mechanically switched shunt capacitor banks are installed at major substations in load areas for producing reactive power and keeping voltage within required limits. For voltage stability shunt capacitor banks are very useful in allowing nearby generators to operate near unity power factor. This maximizes fast acting reactive reserve. Compared to SVCs, mechanically switched capacitor banks have the advantage of much lower cost. Switching speeds can be quite fast. Current limiting reactors are used to minimize switching transients. There are several disadvantages to mechanically switched capacitors. For voltage emergencies the shortcoming of shunt capacitor banks is that the reactive power output drops with the voltage squared. For transient voltage instability the switching may not be fast enough to prevent induction motor stalling. Precise and rapid control of voltage is not possible. Like inductors, capacitor banks are discrete devices, but they are often configured with several steps to provide a limited amount of variable control. If voltage collapse results

in a system, the stable parts of the system may experience damaging over voltages immediately following separation. Shunt reactors Shunt reactors are mainly used to keep the voltage down, by absorbing the reactive power, in the case of light load and load rejection, and to compensate the capacitive load of the line. Other Other equipment can be involved in the provision of reactive power and energy, such as: Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC) and other advanced FACTS (flexible ac transmission system) devices; Tap staggering of transformers connected in parallel; Disconnection of transmission lines; Load shedding;