4.

PARTICULATE EMISSIONS CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

Primary particulate matter is generated by a variety of physical and chemical processes. It is emitted to the atmosphere through combustion, industrial processes, fugitive emissions and natural sources. Secondary particulate matter is formed in the atmosphere from condensation of gases and is predominantly found in the fine range. During coal combustion, the mineral matter (inorganic impurities) is converted to ash. Part of the ash is discharged from the bottom of the furnace as bottom ash. The particles suspended in the flue gas are kno n as fly ash. !ly ash constitutes the primary particulate matter, hich enters the particulate control device. Particulate matter is in general referred to as "P#", "P#$%", "P#&.'" (particulate matter (P#) ith an aerodynamic e(uivalent diameter of $% microns or less and &.' microns or less, respectively). Technologies used to control particulate emissions from coal combustion are) $) *lectrostatic Precipitators(*SPs) &) !abric filters(bahgouses) +) ,et scrubbers -) .ravity Settling /hambers ') /yclone collectors 0) Impact separators 1) 2igh Temperature, 2igh Pressure(2T2P) particulate control 4.1 Electrostatic Precipitators(ESP): /old side (dry) *SP is located after the air preheater and operates in a temperature range of $+% 3 $4%5/. The cold side *SP, of the current market although *SP ith fi6ed7rigid electrodes makes up a large portion ith moving electrodes are becoming more idely here the operating

used. 2ot side (dry) *SP is located before the air preheater

temperature range is +%%3-%%5/. In et *SP, a li(uid film is maintained on the collection plates using spray no88les. The process eliminates the need for rapping as the li(uid film removes any deposited fly ash particles. Thus, problems '& ith re3entrainment fly ash

resistivity and capture of fine particles become obsolete. 2o ever, saturation of the flue gas stream ith at lo temperatures. ater, generate aste

et *SP re(uire

ater and sludge and operate

9oth *SPs and fabric filters are highly efficient particulate removal devices can be further improved by flue gas conditioning.

ith design

efficiencies in e6cess of ::.';. Particulate removal efficiencies in *SP and fabric filters

/onditioning of the fly ash in the flue gas is an established techni(ue used to restore the performance of an *SP in coal3fired po er plants ith high resistivity fly ash resulting from burning lo sulphur coals. *lemental sulphur, ammonia (<2 +), and sulphur trio6ide (S=+) are the main conditioning agents currently used. 4.2 Fabric filter (baghouses) !abric filter, more hich generally operate in the temperature range $&%3$4%5/, have been idely used, especially at industrial sale. The choice bet een *SP and fabric

filtration generally depends on coal type, plant si8e and boiler type and configuration. There are three types of fabric filters based on the cleaning mechanisms of each. The t o fundamental parameters in si8ing and operating bag houses are the air to cloth (>7/) ratio (m7s) and the pressure drop (mm ater gauge, Pascals ). =ther important factors, hich affect the performance of the fabric filter include the flue gas temperature, de point and moisture content? particle si8e distribution and chemical composition of the fly ash. 9oth *SPs and fabric filters are highly efficient particulate removal devices can be further improved by flue gas conditioning. The benefits of flue gas conditioning in fabric filters include achieving lo er emissions at higher bag air to cloth ratio, reducing pressure drop and improving fly ash cake cohesivity thus leading to better dislodgement in larger agglomerates and less re3 ith design

efficiencies in e6cess of ::.';. Particulate removal efficiencies in *SP and fabric filters

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entrainment. *lemental sulphur, ammonia (<2+) and sulphur trio6ide (S=+) are the main conditioning agents currently used. 4.3 Wet scrubbers ,et scrubbers are used in a fe coal3fired plants to capture fly ash in addition to sulphur dio6ide (S=&). In the most idely used venturi scrubber, ater is in@ected into the flue ith the gas stream at the venturi throat to form droplets. !ly ash particles impact

droplets forming a et by3product hich then generally re(uires disposal. ,et scrubbing for particulate removal depends on particle si8e distribution. The system efficiency is reduced as the particle si8e decreases. The process can also have a high energy consumption due to the use of sorbent slurry pumps and fans. The forceful contact resulting from the droplet dispersal (spray to er), contraction of the gas stream (venturi) or counter current flo (collision), removes some of the particles as ell as S= & from the flue gas. #any of the S=& removal efficiencies. 4.4 Gravit Settli!g "ha#bers The principle of this method of collection is to pass the gases through a large chamber at a very lo velocity so that, under the action of gravity, the particles fall out of the gas stream. The effectiveness of this method is largely dependent on the particle si8ing and density of the dust. 9ecause of its si8e and lo efficiency on smaller particle si8ings, the settling chamber has a very limited use. Its great virtue is its e6treme simplicity. 4.$ " clo!es The cyclone separator is the most common type of mechanical separators used in the primary loop of the /!9 boilers (see figure -.$). It is a simple device that provides a high degree of separation for a minimum pressure drop ('% to $%% mm of upper part of the cyclone is cylindrical in shape, ater gauge). The hile lo er part is conical. The gas3 et particulate scrubbers are designed to control both S= & and particulates by utili8ing the alkaline fly ash as sorbent. Aime is fre(uently used to boost

solid suspension enters the cyclone tangentially through a rectangular duct. The cylindrical shape of the cyclone and the tangential entry of the gas cause the gas solid

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suspension to flo in t o concentric vertices around the cyclone. The outer vorte6 travels do n ards and the inner one travels up ards. Solids, being denser than the flue gas leave the outer vorte6 to migrate to ards the The separated solids slide do n the section of the cyclone, from here they flo all under the action of centrifugal force. into recirculation column of the /!9 loop. all and are collected at the bottom of the conical

The relatively clean gas moves up ards through the inner vorte6, leaving through a central vertical a6is at the roof of the cyclone.

Figure 4.1 /yclone Separator The cyclone diameter can affect the cyclone efficiency, hich in turn influences solid

recirculation rates, furnace solid density and furnace temperature. /lassical cyclone design theory suggests that as si8e increases, the efficiency of solids separation decreases. #ultiple cyclones are still used in all designs. 4.$.1 %evelop#e!t of "F& " clo!es 2ot cyclones ith thick refractory ere the common design in the first generation of /!9 boilers. =ne of the most distinctive features of an entirely insulated assembly is the need for very large masses of refractories (&%%3+%% mm thick insulating refractory and $%%3$'% mm hard erosion resistant layer or brick). Development ork over the past several years has certainly improved the reliability and durability of these refractory

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structures, but the use of these materials still has certain unavoidable effects on /!9 unit design. Some of these are itemi8ed in the follo ing paragraphs. Unit start-up time. Aarge masses of thick refractory materials have temperature increase rate limitations, and, in fact, the arm3up rate allo ance for these materials is often the limiting consideration in cold start3up procedures. Unused surface. The internal surface area of a cyclone is fairly large, and the heat transfer coefficients can be relatively high. Therefore, the potential for heat transmission is also high. In refractory assemblies this is a disadvantage because these areas must be heavily insulated to avoid e6cessive heat loss. This disadvantage could be turned into an advantage if the entire assembly could be made of boiler3useful surfaces, such as evaporative or superheat surface. Expansion joints. /yclone and loopseal assemblies composed of refractory differently from the combustorBs > typical assembly ater alls, and ill e6pand

ill therefore re(uire e6pansion @oints.

ill have three e6pansion @oints) ($) bet een the upper combustor

and the cyclone inlet, (&) bet een the cyclone and the loopseal, and (+) bet een the loopseal and the lo er combustor. Refractory quality. The main problem in early cyclones refractory design damage as to find an erosion resistant ere the

ith acceptable maintenance needs. The most eroded areas

upper part of the cyclone and the target area of the inlet. #any cases of refractory ere caused by insufficient supports, by refractory materials not sufficiently ork. Cnderestimated thermal insulation, resistant to erosion, and by poor installation

resulting in a high casing metal temperature and high heat losses, as a further cause. Fuel and load characteristics. In early /!9 technology the only fuel used for energy production as coal. ,hen coal as the only fuel, the plant si8es ork ere typically small and then. /oal and load changes ere relatively lo , and the first generation cyclones coped reasonably as re(uired every no

ell. <aturally, refractory maintenance

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combustion is (uite stable because fluctuations in fuel (uality and feeding are negligible. ,hen boiler si8es increased and multi fuel re(uirements entered /!9 technology in the $:4%s, the technology refractories, as occasionally seen as being unreliable due to damages in ith ood, peat, DD!) load changes can cause combustion hich sometimes resulted in un3scheduled maintenance. *specially

high volatile content fuels (bark,

transients in the cyclone, and the temperature transient in the refractory can be significant hen the gas temperature increases rapidly. These situations have caused cracks in refractories, and some3times dislodged refractories, resulting in plate casing damage.

4.$.1.1 Water'coole( c clo!e The ater3cooled cyclone construction as developed to avoid the eaknesses mentioned above and to improve the reliability. Deliability important factor, breaks. >t the same time, the process goal and medium si8ed units burning coal. Capability for fast load changes. > thin refractory layer tolerates larger temperature changes ithout cracking. Tolerance of high gas temperature. > ater3cooled design allo s temporary high gas as clearly the most

ith a demand for increased operating hours and shorter maintenance as to improve cyclone efficiency for small

temperature ithout damage on the refractory or on the steel structure. Lo heat losses. The thermal insulation outside a ater3cooled cyclone can be very thick and effective. The heat losses from the cyclones become very small. Reduction of the combustor si!e. In larger units the cyclone surfaces are utili8ed as heating surfaces affecting to the combustor si8e. >lso some additional surfaces can be located in the loop seal area. >lthough the refractory covering the inner surfaces of the ater3cooled cyclone ill hold some heat, hich ill increase the feed ater demand

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after an emergency stop, the refractory layer is thin enough so that feed minimi8ed. 4.$.1.2 ")*+" (" li!(rical *ulti'+!let " clo!e)

ater demand is

The /E#I/ (!igure -.&) boiler differs from conventional /!9 boilers primarily because the cyclone is located inside the furnace. The cyclone of a /E#I/ boiler is totally possibility of erosion. There are no areas ater cooled, having all the above mentioned benefits. The straight cyclone minimi8es the here refractory repair is difficult. The cement (A/) castable. refractory standard for /E#I/s is appro6imately '% mm of lo sections. "ptimum location. ,ith respect to ater circulation, the /E#I/ cy3clone is riskless during start3up due to its location inside the furnace) it receives heat at the same rate as the furnace alls. The location of the cyclone also provides a great deal of as also chosen to reduce the overall plan area e6tra heating surface, and this in turn reduces the combustorFs height, especially for larger units. This placement inside the furnace re(uired in the boiler house. #oiler house si!e. > reasonable height for the boiler and a small plan area minimi8es the ne boiler building costs, or makes /E#I/ very advantageous for installations into an e6isting boiler building. 9ecause of the mid3furnace location of the cyclone, the distance re(uired for secondary air penetration is much smaller than in conventional /!9 furnaces, giving good mi6ing and more complete combustion.

The reasons for developing the /E#I/ construction are introduced in the follo ing

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Figure 4.2. /E#I/ schematic

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Uniform operation. The inlet opening of the cyclone is formed using so3called inlet vanes and the flue gases enter the cyclone from all directions. This results as an even temperature and pressure profile in the cyclone. The inlet vanes are made of ear resistant refractory and they are cooled inside by boiler tubing. In addition, the solids return to the lo er part of furnace through several openings around the cyclone. This produces a uniform mass flo distribution back to the bed. 4.$.1.3 +!tegral " li!(rical " clo!e a!( ,oopseal (+"",) =ne common feature of /!9 boilers is that a certain minimum furnace height is desirable to maintain good gas residence time to complete combustion and sulfur capture reactions. =n the other hand, furnace height is also dependent upon steam capacity) as increases. >t a certain point, a steam capacity is reached at ith any type of boiler, the furnace of coal3fired /!9 boilers become taller as the unit capacity hich the height re(uired for steam capacity e6ceeds that re(uired for residence time. It is then advantageous to use surface other than the furnace enclosureBs ater all surface to cool the combustor gases. In /!9 boilers this surface can e6ist in the combustor as ing alls or division alls, or

in the path of the recycling solids. >pplications that use heat e6changers in the recycling solids path include) ($) ,ater or steam cooled cyclones, (&) ,ater or steam cooled loopseals or (+) Immersed surface in refractory or cooled loopseals. *ach method may be best suited for a particular application, depending on fuel type and (uality, steam cycles, available space, etc. The latest development for large coal fired /!9s is the Integral /ylindrical /yclone and Aoopseal (I//A) for use conventional membrane /!9 furnace. The cyclone of the I//A (!igure -.+) is made of t o cylindrical ithin each other. The cyclone is straight and the outside cyclone and on the bottom to form the inside ater cooled vessels ith a

all is a gas tight membrane

all. The inside vessel is membraned only on the top to form the vorte6 tube of the all of the loopseal. The loopseal area is in

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bet een these t o cylinders providing a great deal of space for immersed heat surfaces. The use of ater3cooled loopseals or immersed surface in loopseals has the further advantage of very high heat rates, here boiler surface can be used most efficiently.

Figure 4.3 I//A schematic The reasons for developing the ater3cooled I//A for large boilers ere) Reduction of combustor si!e. 2eating surfaces in the cyclone and loopseal are beneficial especially for larger units to reduce combustor si8e.

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$traight cyclone. The barrel tube spacing should not be so large that heat transfer must be severely limited to protect membrane metals. In a straight cyclone that is not a problem and, for the same reason, there is no need for s aging of tubes to smaller si8e. There are also no intermediate headers. The construction provides ($) acceptable natural circulation characteristics, (&) practical gas inlet G solids outlet connections to combustor, (+) a functionally sound cyclone G loopseal and finally (-) the possibility of manufacturing by normal methods. %dditional ad&antages. !urther benefits of the innovative I//A construction are ($) ater3cooled vorte6 tube, (&) multiple solids outlets capability, (+) larger gas residence time than conventional cyclones and (-) possible placement of immersed surface in the loopseal section. 4.$.1.4 Stea# coole( c clo!e In some cases, and for varying technical reasons, natural circulation of boiler ,ith pressures higher than $0%3$1% bar the density difference bet een ater may not be appropriate for cooling cyclones. =ne reason could be high operational pressure. ater and steam ith is small? further, heat flu6 to the cyclone surfaces is much smaller in comparison to eak

furnace surfaces, especially during start3ups and at lo boiler loads. This reason can lead ater circulation or even a risk of circulation instability in the cyclone if the boiler pressure is in above the mentioned range. The construction is similar to ater cooled cyclones, e6cept that the thermal e6pansion

must be handled in different ay. In ater cooled cases there is no net thermal e6pansion difference bet een the furnace and the cyclone, but in the steam cooled case there is. <aturally, the cyclone is connected as a primary superheater surface to limit the thermal difference. =ne special re(uirement of steam cooled cyclone7loopseal assemblies might be the need for emergency cooling system for plant blackout situations.

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4.- +#pact separators Impact separators are one class of inertial separators. These separate solids from the gas through impingement on collecting bodies arranged across the path of the gas. In general, impingement separators are designed for collection of coarser particles (H$%3&% m in si8e) offering lo resistance (%.&'3%.-% kPa). In an impact separator, the gas3solid suspension passes through a series of obstacles and undergoes sudden and repeated changes in the flo direction. 2o ever, due to their stream around the inertia, the particles, hich have higher momentum than that of the gas, tend to retain the original direction of movement. So instead of follo ing the flo from the gas stream (!igure -.-). collecting ob@ect, the solid particles impact on the collection ob@ect and are sepatated

Figure 4.4 Impact separator schematic 4.-.1 Fi!!e( tubes i#pact separator The finned tubes impact gas3solid separator possesses high separation efficiency compared to other types of impact separator. The fins on the tube can enhance the heat e6change. Targets of this separator (See !igure -.') are superheated or convective tubes elded ith shaped fins, thus improving heat transfer behavior of the tubes as ell. !lo stagnant regions are created in the slots bet een couples of fins. ,hen passing through 0+

the targets, the suspension impacts on the targets and repeat changes it flo inertia, the particle,

path. Due to

hich has larger momentum than that of the gas, can be separated ork

from the main gas stream. ,hen entering the flo stagnant regions, the particles may fall do n along the slots to the ash hopper. #oreover, the fins can be cooled by the temperature conditions. ,ith the support of the tube, the fin their shape hen the finBs length is too long along the tube, of the separator. !urthermore, the reflu6 region before the tubes makes it possible that the bounced back particles can be dragged back into the region bet een the t o fins. >t the entrance of the region bet een the t o fins, the turbulent intensity is small, hich prevents the particles in the region from escaping from it. medium in the tubes so that fins made of common boiler steel can be used at high ill be difficult to change hich is one of the features

Figure 4.$ Targets of the finned tubes impact separator 4.. /igh te#perature0 high pressure (/1/P) particulate co!trol During the last decade, there have been significant advances to ards the commerciali8ation of combined cycle systems, such as the integrated gasification combined cycle (I.//) and pressuri8ed fluidi8ed bed combined cycle (P!9//). >n important component in combined cycle po er systems is a high temperature, high pressure (2T2P) particulate control device. *fficient hot gas particulate filtration is

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necessary to protect the do nstream heat e6changer and gas turbine components from fouling and erosion to meet emission re(uirements 4...1 /ot gas cera#ic filter The hot gas ceramic filter consists of stacked arrays of ceramic candle filter elements supported from a common tube sheet structure (!igure -.0). The arrays are formed by attaching individual ceramic candles to a common plenum section. >ll the dirty gas filtered through the candles on this single array is collected in the common plenum and discharged through a pipe to the clean side of the tube sheet. *ach array of filter elements is cleaned from a single pulse no88le source. The individual plenum assemblies (or arrays) are stacked vertically from a common support structure (pipe), forming a filter cluster. The individual clusters are supported from a common, high alloy, uncooled tube sheet and e6pansion assembly that spans the pressure vessel and divides the vessel into its IcleanJ and IdirtyJ gas sides. The cluster is free to e6pand do n ard at operating temperatures. The plenum discharge pipes ducting the filtered gas to the clean gas side of the tube sheet structure are contained ithin the cluster support pipe and terminate at the tube sheet. The clusters form the basic modules needed for constructing large filter systems having the gas cleaning capacity re(uired in electric utility po er plants.

Figure: 4.- /eramic candle cluster configuration

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