History of Corporate Transparency
History of Corporate Transparency
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This section will provide our readers with a number of items by the authors that, for
space reasons, did not appear in The Naked Corporation. We will publish these over
the next few months, so keep coming back for more!
History's Long Wave of Transparency
Many of the limits on transparency – from principalagent problems, to the protection of trade secrets,
to the complexity that can overwhelm signals with noise, to the war on openness – are increasing or
ineradicable. So why do we claim transparency will increase in the near and long term? A quick review of
U.S. history suggests that transparency always increases, albeit in a stutter step, crisisdriven pattern.
Sages through the ages have linked knowledge, power, and values. From Virgil, “Of those who improved
life by knowledge, and those who are remembered for their services: round the brows of these is a
snowwhite band,”(1) to Samuel Johnson, “Integrity without knowledge is weak and useless, and
knowledge without integrity is dangerous and dreadful,”(2) we have ever been urged that understanding
permits wise action.
Yet those in power have not always encouraged the dissemination of knowledge. History chronicles
many battles over socially and economically strategic information: a struggle for transparency. Kings
and viziers, apostles and priests, sellers and buyers, socialists and capitalists, dictators and democrats,
bosses and workers – all depend on whatever information advantages they can muster. Information
monopolies, particularly when exploited unfairly, inevitably lead to conflicts with rivals and victims.
This chapter offers a potted history of transparency. It begins with the emergence of transparency
technologies in the Western world and then focuses increasingly on the rise of corporate transparency
in the U.S.. This book is about transparency for a variety of the firm’s stakeholders – employees,
customers, bweb partners, communities, and shareholders. The narrative that follows focuses on the
firm’s visibility to just one of these – shareholders. After all, if a company fails to be accountable to its
owners, how will care for the interests of anyone else?
Before capitalism, transparency was inherently weak. Tribes relied on cunning and myth. Church and
state were intertwined; by and large, they controlled commerce and decreed the boundaries of the
knowable and the known. Until the Reformation, most cultural and social revolutions were led or co
opted by rising waves of politicalreligious autocrats.
Transparency depends on having a way to measure and describe the world, and a medium by which to
communicate. The latter arose only some 500 years ago. Paper came into Europe in the 13th century. It
facilitated the work of merchants, bureaucrats, preachers and writers. But until Johannes Gutenberg
invented the printing press in the early 1450s, publishing was manual work: laborintensive and slow.
Maintaining and disseminating knowledge depended almost entirely on facetoface interactions. Small
elite groups monopolized access to the written word, and many texts were lost. Reference points that
we take for granted – like standard maps – did not exist. As late as 1792, France alone had over
250,000 different systems of measurement.
By the turn of the 1500s, Renaissance thinkers had invented investigative tools like the telescope. They
also invented the mechanical clock, which set predictable, constant measures of time (though standard
time had to wait centuries).
With such tools, Galileo, then Newton could discover and publish laws of nature. The explosion in
science and mathematics was accompanied by applied technologies such as musical notation,
perspective painting, and bookkeeping. These new technologies captured knowledge as never before.
Modern accounting – at its core doubleentry bookkeeping – originally invented in the mid1300s, was
popularized in two books by Luca Pacioli around 1500. Accounting was not essential to doing business,
but it let the budding capitalist visualize and communicate the state of his business. Pacioli described
how transparency builds social capital; “Frequent accounting makes for lasting friendships.”(3)
These developments helped stitch together a much broader economy, more “global” and with more
buyers and sellers than ever before. Wide networks demand information, increasing the need for
transparency. A serf growing grapes on a twelfthcentury French baronial estate inhabited a world
where change was slow, prices stable, and relationships highly structured. He could be exploited in
several ways, but he knew his boundaries of risk pretty well. Six hundred years later, a pre
Revolutionary renter working the same land – in a more transparent world – faced more imponderables of
prices and taxation, but change was still fairly slow and markets relatively local. Today’s smallvineyard
owner faces constant price changes from volatile global markets, which unpredictably change the rules
from one season to the next and depend on vagaries of geopolitics. Information and complexity feed on
each other. Today’s grower knows a lot more; he can instantly check prices and markets around the
world and immediately see reviews of his wines in the international press. Yet he has a harder time
planning for each season because prices are volatile. Thus, transparency increases over time, in tandem
with growing volumes of information, even when firms might wish otherwise.
The Telegraph
from one season to the next and depend on vagaries of geopolitics. Information and complexity feed on
each other. Today’s grower knows a lot more; he can instantly check prices and markets around the
world and immediately see reviews of his wines in the international press. Yet he has a harder time
planning for each season because prices are volatile. Thus, transparency increases over time, in tandem
with growing volumes of information, even when firms might wish otherwise.
The Telegraph
While the U.S. economy expanded rapidly from the late 1700s through the 1840s, its tools and forms of
business organization were substantially the same as those of Renaissance Europe. (4) Early America was
an agrarian society. Businesses were modest in size, based on the family or, if larger, on partnerships.
They used doubleentry bookkeeping, consignment sales, and letters of credit. Joint stock companies
also followed inherited models.
During the latter half of the 19th century, science and technology drove changes in industrial
organization, markets, finance – and transparency. The core enabling technologies were steam power
and electricity, improvements in machinery, new chemical industrial production methods, and the
emerging intellectual arts of invention and technological innovation. Most pertinent to our story were
three inventions: the railway, the telegraph and the telephone. We focus on the telegraph though much
of what we say applies to the other two.
The telegraph was the first, and in many ways archetypal, communications medium of the industrial
world. Like the Internet’s founders, Samuel Morse tapped a U.S. government grant to fund the first
telegraph network in 1844. This simple electric medium augured the wonders of today’s global web –
interactivity, anytoany communications, and the collapse of time and space. Within a few decades,
the telegraph’s communication and coordinating power allowed modern industries to decimate local and
itinerant firms. Financial and commodities markets, transportation, retail industries, newspapers, police
work, and personal communications changed almost overnight.
Now and forever, information could move nearly instantaneously. Many telegraph lines used railway
rightsofway. (5) They were also crucial to the growth and operation of this revolutionary
transportation network. Telegraph messages enabled railways to run on time and to coordinate people
and materials.
Almost immediately, the new medium became a force for change. The British military had for centuries
wasted soldiers’ lives and lost battles due to command failures. In 1854, the Times (London)
newspaper’s telegraphed reports on the Crimean War described how men perished on the battlefield
from hunger and neglect while the wounded languished without physicians or bandages. The newspaper
pointedly suggested that “it rests with the Government to make enquiries into the conduct of those
who must have so greatly neglected their duty.” The immediacy of this human interest story led
Florence Nightingale to go into nursing. (6) She wrote to the war secretary proposing a plan for a private
nursing corps. Nightingale went to the Crimea where she invented battlefield nursing. Then she created
the modern nursing profession, exposed the horrors of the British home medical system, and laid the
foundation for the hospital and public health systems of the 20th century.
The telegraph added more than just immediacy to the news. It spawned wire services, which
fundamentally changed the nature of reporting – from the partisan, idiosyncratic style of the local hack
to a professional approach that worked in papers of any style or stripe. The new form was objective
and spare: nothing but the facts, at least in form if not always in content. Wire services taught the
public the structure and value of objective discourse. (7)
The telegraph also spawned mythologies resurrected in the early days of the Internet explosion, as in
this 1858 U.S. paean: “How potent a power, then, is the telegraph destined to become in the
civilization of the world! …It is impossible that old prejudices and hostilities should longer exist, while
such an instrument has been created for an exchange of thought between all the nations of the
earth.”(8) A British commentator took a more jaundiced view; “It may be doubted whether any more
efficient means could be adopted… to consolidate British power and strengthen British rule.”(9) Indeed,
the telegraph quickly became crucial to the imperial center’s visibility and control over its colonial
representatives and investments. Perhaps empires could be governable after all.
The telegraph combined with the railway to bring transparency to markets. Before, markets were mostly
local and independent of one another. Prices varied from place to place. Middlemen arbitraged these
differences: their unique knowledge enabled them to buy cheap in one place and sell dear in another.
The telegraph and railway quickly created national commodity and securities markets. In the 1820s,
grain prices in Cincinnati lagged eastern markets by two years. By 1840 the lag was four months, and it
vanished by the end of the next decade.
The result was profound: farmers’ locus of risk shifted from local buyers to national commodity markets.
Futures markets replaced the arbitrage of pretelegraph itinerant middlemen. These markets reduced
price fluctuations and enabled food supply chain participants to manage resources with greater
certainty. Space based speculation declined (arbitrage fails when all participants know the current
price), and timebased speculation took off (futures bets work because no one can predict with
certainty, and timevalue itself is salable). (10) Futures contracts became tradable because reports on
weather and other conditions (such as capacity) reached markets long before the goods. All these –
and the financial derivatives that followed – resulted from the transparency of the telegraph and its
successors.
As with presentday derivatives, the first futures markets created new challenges to transparency.
Such instruments had the effect of creating an entirely new financial marketplace with a life of its own.
Speculators bought and sold futures, receipts, and other instruments quite independently of the goods
to which they referred, and also independently of their gritfingered producers. The vagaries of these
selfcontained commodities markets ultimately translated into prices for producers and purchasers, but
these terms often bore only a passing relationship to the hog farmer’s cost of production or the
consumer’s lust for bacon. As markets rose and fell, some farmers got rich while others lost everything –
all because of opaque forces that operated in a mysterious and inaccessible realm.
Transparency breeds complexity, which creates new demands for transparency. It is not a simple linear
story of progress but rather one of periodic crises, followed by hardwon (and hardtopreserve)
breakthroughs.
Robber Barons
In the midnineteenth century, getting a charter to form a corporation was still a privilege bestowed by
Transparency breeds complexity, which creates new demands for transparency. It is not a simple linear
story of progress but rather one of periodic crises, followed by hardwon (and hardtopreserve)
breakthroughs.
Robber Barons
In the midnineteenth century, getting a charter to form a corporation was still a privilege bestowed by
the state. The limited liability corporation was a new kind of artifact, a gift to the new breed of
entrepreneur. Railway entrepreneurs in search of charters plied politicians with money, shares, and free
passes. Between 1850 and 1857 rail companies got 25 million acres of public land for free, as well as
millions of dollars in loans from state legislatures. Railway stocks took off, and then collapsed. In this
nineteenthcentury bubble, many railways went bankrupt and defaulted on their loans (capital expenses
for laying track and assembling rolling stock were huge). (11)
Most industries had dozens, even hundreds, of small players and no rules. Competition was ruthless and
destructive, labor standards barbaric. The economy swung erratically from boom to bust. Prices soared,
banks failed, and depositors were left in the lurch. The telegraph and the press increased transparency,
but the world was not an open book for all.
The selfmade steamship and railway baron Cornelius Vanderbilt, a primary school dropout, kept his
business accounts in his head throughout his life. He trusted no one and built his empire through market
cornering and bribery. At his death, reputedly worth $100 million, he was the richest man in the
country.
From its early days in the 19th century, the New York Stock Exchange was the financial center of U.S.
capitalism. Backroom deals, gambling, fraud, and selfdealing were rampant. Members enjoyed lower
trading rates than nonmembers. Share prices were rarely made known to the public or the press. Until
DowJones founded the Wall Street Journal in 1889 – where the DowJones Index ran on a daily basis
from 1896 – most financial newspapers were paid mouthpieces for stock promoters. This practice ended
only after the 1929 crash.
Meanwhile, there was neither meaningful financial regulation nor a central bank. When the Knickerbocker
Trust failed in 1907 after a market panic, thousands of depositors lost everything. The bank’s president,
Charles Barney, shot himself, and several depositors followed suit. J. P. Morgan led a private sector
bailout of other wobbly trust institutions. This ad hoc system functioned, but only at great risk and with
meager information available to ordinary investors.
Transparency would only happen as a result of aggressive state intervention. No one knew how much J.
P. Morgan was at the center of the banking and commercial world until the 1912 Pujo congressional
investigation revealed that he and a dozen partners held 72 interlocking directorships in 47 major
corporations. In total, the officers of the Morgan and just three other banks held 341 directorships in
112 corporations, with resources of $22 billion (which exceeded the assessed value of all property in the
22 states and territories west of the Mississippi). In congressional testimony Morgan denied knowledge
of his own connections and dealings. Until that moment of “transparency” and even afterward, Morgan
and his partners denied the existence of a “money trust.”(12)
In an attempt to bring order to chaos and restore public confidence, Woodrow Wilson formed the
Federal Reserve and the antimonopoly Federal Trade Commission. This first great regulatory explosion
was a response to new, largescale corporations and financial webs, themselves made possible by the
telephone and telegraph. Yet they were insufficient to tame the business cycle.
It took the worst business collapse in modern history – the Great Depression – to force transparency
into the underlying world of money and securities. The Securities Act of 1933 was the first piece of
national securities legislation passed by Congress. (13) During the previous two decades, some 20 states
had passed a patchwork of socalled bluesky laws to regulate the issuance of securities, but these
were rife with loopholes. U.S. financial markets, in both banking and securities, operated pretty much
free of regulation and visibility until Franklin Roosevelt stepped in.
Arguably, the 1929 crash was just another 1800s style panic in a bigger, more complex, and
interdependent 20th century world. Wall Street machinations – many of which the Internet bubble of
the 1990s revisited – caused the crash:
• Stocks replaced bank savings for over a million Americans.
• Bankers used deposits to lend money to stockbrokers and accepted stocks as collateral.
• The boom in banking and share prices drove a false “wealth effect” along with inflation and high
interest rates.
The Depression had everything to do with transparency, in several dimensions.
First was the collapse of investmentbank houses of cards – hundreds of interlinked holding companies
and investment trusts with little or no substance behind them.
Goldman Sachs, for example, floated the Shenandoah Corporation in 1929. A third of
Shenandoah’s assets was stock in another investment trust, Goldman Sachs Trading
Corporation. In due course, Goldman Sachs created another and larger trust, the Blue Ridge
Corporation, and 80 percent of its capital was stock in the Shenandoah Corporation. Such
speculative monuments of the New Era became its necropolis. Their own stock was exposed
as worthless when trade slumped. (14)
Deposit banks were a second kind of house of cards; as they collapsed, millions lost their personal
savings. This turned out to be another byproduct of opacity. Some bankers had used depositors’
money to personally speculate on risky and fraudulent deals. Others simply stole depositors ’ money
outright (this did not apply to the major New York and Chicago banks, but was widespread elsewhere).
A vicious spiral ensued when millions of depositors panicked and withdrew their money.
Then after the crash some bankers, notably Albert Wiggin of Chase National, used their inside positions
in Wall Street’s bailout attempt to make millions from short selling. Wiggin used Canadian companies to
hide profits and avoid paying taxes. Word got out. This scandal was among the main reasons why banks
and stock markets lost public support for a generation. (15)
All this contributed to mass fear that extended well beyond 600,000 active investors to millions of
families who had fallen into debt for the first time in their lives. A deflationary spiral ensued. Many
closed their wallets, pushing the prices of goods, services, and shares down and unemployment up.
Then after the crash some bankers, notably Albert Wiggin of Chase National, used their inside positions
in Wall Street’s bailout attempt to make millions from short selling. Wiggin used Canadian companies to
hide profits and avoid paying taxes. Word got out. This scandal was among the main reasons why banks
and stock markets lost public support for a generation. (15)
All this contributed to mass fear that extended well beyond 600,000 active investors to millions of
families who had fallen into debt for the first time in their lives. A deflationary spiral ensued. Many
closed their wallets, pushing the prices of goods, services, and shares down and unemployment up.
Consumer spending dropped by 10 percent in 1930.
The New Rules
Finally the government stepped in and forced the United States’ financial system to open itself to
greater scrutiny and regulation. Transparency was central to the first piece of national securities
legislation ever passed by Congress. Franklin Delano Roosevelt submitted the Securities Act of 1933
right after he took office, saying:
The Federal Government cannot and should not take any action which might be construed
as approving or guaranteeing that newly issued securities are sound in the sense that their
value will be maintained or that the properties which they represent will earn a profit …There
is however an obligation upon us to insist that every issue to be sold in interstate
commerce shall be accompanied by full publicity and information. (16)
The act required sellers to register new securities – and supporting information – with the Federal Trade
Commission. Issuers of foreign bonds (also the subject of various fraudulent schemes) were required to
do the same. Wall Street dispatched John Foster Dulles (who later became Dwight Eisenhower’s
secretary of state) to fight the law, to no avail.
The GlassSteagall Act went even further, dismantling the structural basis of selfdealing in the Robber
Baron era. The act separated commercial from investment banking. Every bank had to choose one or
the other activity. J. P. Morgan Company, the commercial bank, begrudgingly spun out Morgan Stanley
Company as a bond and stock business. Now, bank depositors could trust that the preservation of their
accounts no longer depended on stock fluctuations.
Next Roosevelt decided to police the stock market itself. The Securities Exchange Act of 1934 created
the Securities and Exchange Commission: for the first time, investment bankers were accountable to a
government agency. Again transparency was central. Any company or investment banker who made a
false filing with the SEC would face prosecution. All publicly traded companies would henceforth be
required to register and provide quarterly and annual financial reports. To gain the right to register
newly issued shares of other companies, investment banks would also have to provide financial
information about themselves. This was revolutionary, since most companies – from the house of
Morgan on down – had never published annual reports. Joseph P. Kennedy, trusted by Wall Street, was
Roosevelt’s brilliant first choice as SEC chair. Despite this choice, the SEC Act ended any prospect for
good relations between Roosevelt and the Street.
Roosevelt lost other battles. But his legal framework established an enduring bridgehead for
transparency in U.S. capitalism. Although Wall Street and corporate executives howled and skirted
rules, the foundation held. It changed the structure and dayto day operations of industry, mostly for
the better – for all parties.
Separation of Ownership from Control
Adam Smith described the capitalism of the invisible hand: individual entrepreneurs, pursuing their own
selfinterest, create goods and services that meet the needs of customers with growing efficiency,
creating benefit for all. This description was true enough in his time. But by the New Deal, the invisible
hand had given way to an institutional model that was far more complex. Instead of individual capitalists
with modest businesses, gigantic corporations dominated entire industries and integrated a wide range
of functions under a single umbrella. And the shareholders of these businesses were typically in the
dark.
Consider one example. In 1881, James Bonsack patented a machine which soon thereafter could
produce 120,000 cigarettes per day. The mostskilled manual workers produced 3,000 cigarettes a day;
Bonsack’s machine reduced production costs by 85 percent. Fifteen such machines would easily
saturate the entire U.S. market. James B. Duke was the first to put this machine to work. He acted
quickly to create a vertically integrated purchasing, manufacturing, advertising, sales, and distribution
organization to capitalize on the machine’s capability. Within a few years, his firm, the American
Tobacco Company, had all the core characteristics of a managerial, multidepartment, twentieth century
firm. Duke built a largescale industrial corporation from scratch, because he had no choice if he wanted
to capitalize on the potential of Bonsack’s cigarette machine. The choice was simple: grow fast or lose
out to competitors.
Duke and others like him did not personally have enough capital to fund the growth of his business. Well
in advance of receiving product sales revenue that would cover all his costs, he had to acquire land,
build facilities, hire and pay employees, buy equipment and materials, advertise, distribute, and so on.
Aspiring capitalists raised money by selling shares of their companies to others – initially, perhaps, on a
private basis, then via public markets like Wall Street.
These “limited liability” corporations, made possible when the courts first allowed owners and employees
to be free of personal liability for their firms’ actions, are central to modern capitalism – and unlike
anything that Adam Smith imagined. Since the corporation has a separate existence unto itself, it is
solely liable for its debts and obligations. Its investors and shareholders stand to gain from the firm’s
success, but their personal risk is limited to the amount of capital they have invested (which in a worst
case scenario such as bankruptcy, they may lose).
Limited liability, granted by society, is a good deal for investors. Arguably, in exchange for the privilege
of limited liability, firms as instruments of their shareholders can or should be accountable to society for
their actions. In other words firms, should be transparent, not cause harm, do good, and so on, as
consideration for the “gift” of limited liability (not to mention other considerations such as an education
system that delivers skilled workers, laws that facilitate commerce and the interests of specific
corporations and industries, financial assistance, and so on). While a democratic state is the product of
case scenario such as bankruptcy, they may lose).
Limited liability, granted by society, is a good deal for investors. Arguably, in exchange for the privilege
of limited liability, firms as instruments of their shareholders can or should be accountable to society for
their actions. In other words firms, should be transparent, not cause harm, do good, and so on, as
consideration for the “gift” of limited liability (not to mention other considerations such as an education
system that delivers skilled workers, laws that facilitate commerce and the interests of specific
corporations and industries, financial assistance, and so on). While a democratic state is the product of
the coming together of “natural” individual citizens, the firm is an artifact that exists at the pleasure of
the state. As a minimum, since the firm’s very existence and legal “personhood” depends on the state’s
laws and licenses, the state has a right to regulate: to define the terms by which the firm gains and
continues in its right to exist.
A related big change from Adam Smith’s theory was the separation of ownership from control. This
began with the capitalization of railways in the nineteenth century and became dominant across most
industries by the 1920s. Adolf A. Berle and Gardiner C. Means first analyzed this change in 1933. (17) As
joint stock companies grew and investors traded shares with one another, the stock market took on a
life of its own. Thousands, then hundreds of thousands of individuals bought shares. By and large, no
individual owned even 1 percent of any one company. As a result, shareholders as a class became
weak, while managers inside the firm took control. Berle and Means nailed the resulting risk for
shareholders: “The controlling group … can serve their own pockets better by profiting at the expense
of the company than by making profits for it.”(18)
Since few firms bothered to publish financial reports before 1933, shareholders lacked the most basic
information about the companies they owned. Even Berle and Means, after years of research, reported
that due to the “difficulty of obtaining information on industrial companies, they could not vouch for the
accuracy of their data on the ownership structures of the country’s 200 largest publicly traded
corporations.”(19) Accurate information on most companies was just not available: “An outsider cannot
estimate, and the insider frequently does not know, which of the various elements, if any, is
dominant.”(20)
New integrated multiunit firms like AT&T, General Motors, and Standard Oil were exceedingly complex,
generating an evergrowing need for coordination, welldefined organizational hierarchies, and
professional management. (21) Few of the entrepreneurs who started companies knew how to run them.
Frederick Taylor and others promoted scientific management, “a complete mental revolution.” Managers
and workers should “push shoulder to shoulder in the same direction” to generate profits so great that
there’s no quarrel over how to divide them up. “Exact scientific investigation and knowledge” ought to
replace the individual judgment and opinions of workers and bosses. (22)
Taylor’s “exact scientific investigation and knowledge” founded the cult of management science – a
mystique that sought to put managers on a par with professionals like physicians, engineers, and
scientific researchers. Management has always mixed art with science, yet the ideal of scientific
management reinforced the selfassigned right of executives to run firms with minimal accountability
toward shareholders or, for that matter, other stakeholders (with the occasional exception of
customers). It also legitimized opacity: like other “scientific” professionals, managers purportedly have
specialized knowledge that is beyond the ken of the average layperson, not to mention the average
employee. On the positive side, the cult of scientific management produced a mindset of professionalism
– almost like a religious calling. Integrity and modest personal gain were hallmarks of the sincere post
World War II professional manager.
This system has prevailed ever since, though it is now, in certain respects, in crisis. Topdown
management by the numbers is finally giving way, but not everywhere.
Peter Drucker dryly observed in 1954 that scientific management “may well be the most powerful as well
as the most lasting contribution America has made to Western thought since the Federalist Papers. ”
Then he attacked its cardinal tenets, including assembly line onemotion/onejob production and the
“divorce of planning from doing.” These practices, he said, reflect “a dubious and dangerous
philosophical concept of an elite which has a monopoly on esoteric knowledge entitling it to manipulate
the unwashed peasantry.”(23) (Only recently has this message reached most business schools.)
In theory, the managers of the 1950s and 1960s cared about shareholders; after all, they measured
their success in rising share prices. But the practicalities of shareholder accountability were absent.
Drucker, again, was prescient – this time in 1974. He worried that boards have become “a fiction.” They
are “either simply management committees [i.e., controlled by inside directors], or they are
ineffectual.”(24) He listed three causes which ring true today: the dispersion of share ownership (the
fundamental cause), the separation of ownership and control (the result), and the fact that top
management doesn’t want a truly effective board:
An effective board asks inconvenient questions. An effective board demands top
management performance and removes top executives who do not perform adequately –
this is its duty. An effective board insists on being informed before the event – this is its
legal responsibility. An effective board will not unquestioningly accept the recommendations
of top management but will want to know why… An effective board, in other words, insists
on being effective. And this, to most top managements, appears to be a restraint, a
limitation, an interference with “management prerogatives,” and altogether a threat. (25)
Shareholders who took issue with any of this could only “vote with their feet” and sell their shares.
Management tightly choreographed annual meetings and shareholder ballots. The typical shareholder
didn’t care, since he (typically male at the time) was but one of millions of unrelated small holding
speculators. He didn’t want to be bothered about corporate governance. As long as his shares went up,
he was happy. Opacity was AOK.
Reality Check
The rise of the baby boom generation in the 1960s, changes in society, culture, and politics; and an
accumulation of shocks prepared the ground for a new assault on opacity in business.
• The Civil Rights movement challenged discrimination, first in public services, then inevitably in the
workplace. As this tale unfolded, myths of equality and invisible persecutions were stripped naked.
• The Soviet Union’s 1957 Sputnik, the first space satellite, frightened the United States into wondering
whether the Soviet Union – and its industrial technologies – might not prevail.
• Executives of several large companies, such as GE and Westinghouse, were found to have conspired
accumulation of shocks prepared the ground for a new assault on opacity in business.
• The Civil Rights movement challenged discrimination, first in public services, then inevitably in the
workplace. As this tale unfolded, myths of equality and invisible persecutions were stripped naked.
• The Soviet Union’s 1957 Sputnik, the first space satellite, frightened the United States into wondering
whether the Soviet Union – and its industrial technologies – might not prevail.
• Executives of several large companies, such as GE and Westinghouse, were found to have conspired
to raise prices. They had covered their tracks by meeting in hunting lodges, using code names and
making calls from public telephone booths. Their CEOs claimed in court they didn’t know what their vice
presidents were doing. The VPs went to jail and business began to operate under a cloud. Presidents
Kennedy and Johnson passed new regulations and staffed enforcement agencies with business critics.
• The 1963 Kennedy assassination tore away a patina of civility; if the most dashing national leader of
the century was vulnerable, so was every other person and institution.
• Vietnam divided the nation and weakened trust in government.
In the 1970s, U.S. management practices were shaken by stagflation and the stunning rise of Japanese
competitors (despite books on “the Japanese way,” it was impossible for western firms to emulate
Japan’s complex webs of interrelationships, not least because of their opacity). Their credibility again
falling into disarray, U.S. firms paid dearly for their lack of transparency and accountability in the
corporate raids of the 1980s and the “business reengineering” craze at the turn to the 1990s. Driving
these events were two additional structural shifts. First was a new industrial revolution: a demanding,
innovationcentric economy made possible by information and communications technologies. Second
was the rise of investor capitalism: shareholders, including institutional investors and market players
(such as the corporate raiders of the 1980s and the venture capitalists of the 1990s), challenged the
separation of ownership and control.
Suddenly, antibureaucratic management, innovation, and corecompetency focus – expressed and
inspired by books like In Search of Excellence – began their ascent. (26) One illustration: analysts in the
media and the computer industry worried that data processing departments were losing control over
employees who were stealthily buying PCs with departmental budgets. The PC revolution put a new kind
of tool for transparency in the hands of ordinary people, whether they thought of themselves as
shareholders, employees, customers, community members, or all of these at once.
The merger and acquisition (M&A) boom of the 1980s was a forced shakeout of the excess capacity and
bureaucratic inefficiencies in the old managerial capitalist order. There were 35,000 M&A transactions
between 1976 and 1990, with a total value of $2.6 trillion (1992 dollars). (27) Many described the boom –
along with some huge payouts that went with it – as a greedy maneuver by corporate barbarians who
sucked innovation and investment out of the economy, degraded the country’s competitiveness, and
destroyed the lives of hundreds of thousands of terminated employees. Critics attacked exotic
techniques like leveraged buyouts and junk bonds, which eliminated size as a barrier against takeover
and let nonestablishment foxes into the corporate chicken coop. Certainly, corporate raiders made tons
of money while loyal employees lost jobs, paying dearly for a situation few of them created.
But underlying all the fire and fury, investors were finally doing more than voting with their feet.
Corporate raiders and institutional investors reasserted the right of shareholders to have a say in the
fate of the firm. Business visibility increased dramatically, as players’ failings, inefficiencies, maneuvers,
and selfdealings were scrutinized as never before.
Such events changed the course of history for many companies during the 1980s. Many analysts argue
that the M&A boom was a necessary purge. Excess capacity was eliminated, corporations slimmed
down, and companies that were trying to do too many things at once got broken up into more focused
units. “On average, sellingfirm shareholders in all M&A transactions in the period 1976 to1990 were paid
premiums over market value of 41%, and total M&A transactions generated $750 billion in gains to
target firms’ shareholders… it appears that most of these gains represent increases in efficiency, ”
reports Michael Jenson. (29)
But a new consensus urged that the continuous bloodletting had to stop. It was, to put it mildly, “too
disruptive.” By the early 1990s the M&A boom was over. The corporate and fiduciary communities
reached a new consensus: accountability to investors, and particularly longterm investors like pension
funds, would be better served through ongoing oversight by management and directors within the firm
and by institutional investors outside the firm. Corporate governance activities rather than battles over
corporate control would become the norm. But in the exuberance of the dotcom boom, the expected
oversight did not happen, result: the 2002 corporate governance crisis.
But first in the early 1990s came business reengineering, fueled by another recession. Whether inspired
or traumatized by popular management theory and the corporate raiders, executives in effect raided
their own companies. They “delayered” middle management, downsized the front lines, and reengineered
business processes (many of which had never been “engineered” in the first place).
In a spirit of better late than never, boards of directors moved in on some serious executive failures.
GM’s board fired CEO Robert Stempel in 1992 after the company reported losses of $6.2 billion in 1990
and 1991. IBM replaced John Akers with Lou Gerstner after $2.8 billion in losses in 1991 and more red ink
in 1992. Eastman Kodak followed suit. In these and other cases the problems had been visible for years
– in GM’s case for over 20, in IBM’s for over 10. Transparency means more than making things visible; it
also means taking action on what you see.
The Internet bubble, for all its folly, permanently regeared the economy. Most important for our story
(as described in Chapter 1), the Internet is a transparency medium without peer in human history. The
bubble also bounced the world out of recession, shocked companies out of their processreengineering
narcissism, brought globalization to life, and launched a productivity boom that has no end in sight.
US Steel provides an example of how the game changed. Founded by Andrew
Carnegie and taken public by J.P. Morgan, U.S. Steel was a crown jewel of U.S.
industrial capitalism. By the 1980s it was under assault from efficient Japanese
steel manufacturers. It had too many plants, and too many inefficient plans.
Sensing that the company was vulnerable, CEO David roderick diversified by
buying Marathon Oil in 1981. Nevertheless, by mid decade U.S. Steel's shares
had fallen below its breakup value (the price its indivitual components would
fetch if they were sold separately), well below what it had paid for Marathon.
(28)
In 1984 Roderick used a proxy statement to push through antitakeover
industrial capitalism. By the 1980s it was under assault from efficient Japanese
steel manufacturers. It had too many plants, and too many inefficient plans.
Sensing that the company was vulnerable, CEO David roderick diversified by
buying Marathon Oil in 1981. Nevertheless, by mid decade U.S. Steel's shares
had fallen below its breakup value (the price its indivitual components would
fetch if they were sold separately), well below what it had paid for Marathon.
(28)
In 1984 Roderick used a proxy statement to push through antitakeover
resolutions, including staggered board elections and a rule that any takeover
required approval by twothirds of the shareholders. This is a perfect example of
a maneuver designed to preserve the separation between ownership and
control. Such measures strenthen the hands of management against the
interests of shareholders who might make money from the sale of the company.
Note that, if owning share in a company is an investment in its future value, a
sale is one great way to enjoy this benefit. Tying the company upby requiring a
twothirds majority, as Roderick did, is bad for shareholders who stand to gain
from a sale.
The following year Roderick announced plans to buy another oil company, Texas
Oil and Gas. He planned to achieve this by issuing 133 million new shares, which
would more than double the number to 255 million. As a result, several
institutional investors pension and retirement funds holding several million U.S.
Steel shares rose up in arms. Roderick managed to push the deal through, at
an excessive price, just as natural gas prices peaked and just before they
collapsed.
In 1986, slumping energy prices drove U.S. Steel's oil and gas profits down to
$42 million (from $1.6 billion in 1985). The new Texas Oil and Gas subsidiary
posted a $31 million loss. Corporate raider Carl Icahn decided to acquire the
company and sell off its assets one by one. He started buying nowcheap USX
(as U.S Steel had renamed itself) stock. He soon amassed 9.8 percent of the
company's equity and made an offer on the rest of it. Roderick threw up a
series of defenses and managed to stave Icahn off. In 1989 Icahn returned.
Brandishing 13.1 percent of USX shares, he went after the new CEO, Charles
Corry. Icahn forced a shareholder vote on a motion to break the company into
two "pure plays," steel and energy, artguing that they had greater market value
separately than together. Several big institutional investors supported him; new
style activists lined up against USX's industrial age management. Corry fought
back and defeated Icahn's motion. Then a year later hne presented a resolution
of his own to split the company's shares into separate steel and energy trading
stocks. with Icahn's endorsement it passed by a large margin. USX had finally
bowed to the wishes of its owners.
The Corporate Governance Crisis of 2002
The Internet bubble lubricated the corporate governance crisis of 2002, most visibly in the case of
Enron, by diverting attention from oldfashioned standards of profitability and governance amid hype
about “new rules for a new economy.” But crooked dealings at accounting firms, multibillion dollar
writedowns at over 150 companies, and conflicts of interest at securities firms can’t be blamed on the
Internet.
In April 2003, ten Wall Street firms agreed to split penalties totaling $1.4 billion, a relatively painless
outcome considering how they vaporized the integrity of core processes at the heart of market
capitalism. For corrupt practices like publishing falsely favorable analyst reports, sending clients
advance copies of analyst reports, and using shares of hot initial public offerings to virtually bribe CEOs
of client firms, the brokerages avoided admissions of guilt while their executives escaped criminal
prosecution. Some forth percent of the fines were mitigated by tax deductibility or insurance. And, as
The Economist observed, the entire amount is equivalent to a few days ’ collective profits and a tiny
percentage of what the firms earned during the boom. (30) The two entities that should have been
policing these firms – the New York Stock Exchange and the National Association of Securities Dealers –
also escaped censure. Investors’ civil suits are now bound to follow.
Ultimately, the bubble merely exacerbated the perennial principalagent problem, that is, the separation
of ownership from control. When there is personal gain at stake, many “agents” (corporate executives)
tune their values to rationalize malfeasance.
We’ve seen such problems before, most spectacularly in the events surrounding the 1929 crash –
houses of cards; misstatements of financials; self dealing by overpaid executives; stock promoters with
conflicts of interest; boards of directors that fail to blow the whistle whether due to cronyism, conflicts
of interest, or sheer laziness; and all in the atmosphere of an overheated market where expectations
outpaced reality.
But there were some encouraging differences. At no time was the integrity of the banking system
questioned or at risk. Even the brokerage industry, with a proven industrywide conflict of interest
between research and underwriting, was not fundamentally undermined: it lost more to the overall
decline of the stock market and the rise of online trading (another Internetbased transparency
phenomenon) than to the conflict of interest scandal.
Also, transparency proved to be a constructive force. Whistleblowers came forward against Enron,
Andersen, WorldCom, and others. The media delivered the story. Institutional investors like CalPERS
pressured Congress to act and tightened up their own operating guidelines. Investors pulled out of the
market; this resulted in a massive value collapse and sent a clear signal that visible change was a
matter of urgency. Many companies began to rethink and revise their governance.
As in the 1930s, the government stepped in with new laws (though we are not convinced it will follow
through). The SarbanesOxley Act moved quickly through Congress and came into effect July 30, 2002.
Like Roosevelt’s 1933 Securities Act, the focus of SarbanesOxley is to strengthen transparency. Key
provisions among the act’s many new rules are:
• A firm’s CEO and chief financial officer must both sign written statements certifying that their
company’s quarterly and annual financial reports meet reporting rules and fairly present, in all material
respects, its financial condition and the results of its operations.
through). The SarbanesOxley Act moved quickly through Congress and came into effect July 30, 2002.
Like Roosevelt’s 1933 Securities Act, the focus of SarbanesOxley is to strengthen transparency. Key
provisions among the act’s many new rules are:
• A firm’s CEO and chief financial officer must both sign written statements certifying that their
company’s quarterly and annual financial reports meet reporting rules and fairly present, in all material
respects, its financial condition and the results of its operations.
• A new board will set and enforce the quality and ethics standards of audits, with the authority to
impose stiff financial penalties.
• Accountants are prohibited from providing nonaudit services to audit clients.
• Board committees of independent directors rather than company executives will appoint external
auditors.
• The Securities and Exchange Commission is mandated to address securities analyst conflicts of
interest.
• The kind of evidence destruction that Andersen did at Enron can lead to a prison sentence of up to 20
years, and defrauding shareholders 25 years.
• Employees who blow the whistle on securities violations gain protection.
Institutional investors demanded new kinds of transparency in this crisis – and they also found ways for
transparency to contribute to their portfolio growth. The crisis in corporate governance drove them to
adopt a much more public profile.
In 2002 the California Public Employees' Retirement System (CalPERS), the $143 billion benefits fund for
state workers and other public sector employees and the largest of its kind, moved into the headlines.
It had been badly stung by a distinct lack of transparency: Pacific Corporate Group, which advised
CalPERS to put more than $750 million into Enron, also was getting rich fees from the Texas energy
trader for snagging investors. CalPERS moved to eliminate such conflicts of interest by requiring its
financial advisers to disclose financial ties with the firms whose securities they recommended. And, in
late 2002, CalPERS invested $200 million to become a partner in a turnaround fund that targets
underperforming Japanese companies. The fund is forecasting a 30 percent rate of return by acquiring
sclerotic conglomerates, selling off their parts, and improving their corporate governance – a strategy
that hearkens back to the glory days of 1980s M&A.
CalPERS was also instrumental to the passage of the proxy voting rules for mutual funds that we
described in Chapter 1 – a critical piece of the puzzle for improving corporate accountability to
shareholders.
The Role of Regulation
Transparency strengthens market forces, theoretically reducing the need for regulatory enforcement.
But the history of the past century shows that the transparencydriven surge of powerful market forces
is not sufficient to change corporate behavior. As a matter of economic necessity, many firms may
embrace norms of candor and integrity that exceed minimum legal requirements. But free riders will take
advantage of the system as long as the legal umbrella protects them; and many, as we’ve seen, are
quite willing to break the law.
Thus, free markets depend on strong governments. Public interests are greater than the sum of all
private interests. And open market economies depend on clear rules, rigorously enforced.
Wellperforming capital markets capture the wisdom of millions of investors, but this only works when
investors have complete and accurate information on each firm ’s financial health. This begins with
trustworthy audited financial reports. External auditors were among the measures the U.S. government
put in place after the 1929 stock market crash. But even then questions arose as to whether external
accounting firms could be trusted. In 1933 a member of Congress asked Col. A. H. Carter, senior partner
of Deloitte Haskins & Sells: who will audit the accountants? "Our conscience," Colonel Carter replied. (31)
More than sixtyfive years later, this premise sent Arthur Andersen up in smoke.
The protections in SarbanesOxley are long overdue; if anything, they don’t go far enough. Some
business groups fought even these mild measures. U.S. Chamber of Commerce president Thomas
Donohue published a letter that accused Senator Paul Sarbanes of a "kneejerk, politically charged
reaction" to the Enron scandal and claimed that accounting reforms were a threat to "informed market
decisionmaking." Not all groups were equally shortsighted. The Business Roundtable called for
SarbanesOxley’s swift implementation, saying the “legislation will help investors, employees and
companies by restoring investor confidence.”
Rules also help a market economy by preventing unethical companies from externalizing costs onto other
market participants. Example: the Prestige oil tanker sank off the Spanish coast November 2002,
resulting in a human and economic disaster beyond that caused by the Exxon Valdez. The Prestige
immediately disgorged 20,000 tons of fuel oil (half the amount spilled by the Valdez) and sank with
another 60,000 tons still on board. Oil from the tanker contaminated beaches and shut down a $1.5
billion fishing industry that employed 120,000 people along the Spanish Galician coast. The oil then
moved east to the Asturian and Cantabrian coasts. Oil stains were reported in the Basque province of
Guipuzcoa. By early January 2003, cowpiesize globs began washing up on the shores of southwestern
France, closing the area's famed oyster beds and tourist beaches. With a massive store of oil still in the
sunken tanker, no one knows when this disaster will end. (32)
The Prestige was a regulatory basket case. It was, like the Valdez, a singlehulled tanker, a
construction well known to create far greater risk of spill than a twohulled ship; the U.S. banned single
hulled tankers from its waters after the Valdez spill, but the European Union had failed to follow suit.
The boat was chartered by the Swissbased subsidiary of a Russian conglomerate registered in the
Bahamas, owned by a Greek through Liberia, and given a certificate of seaworthiness by the U.S.. When
the ship refueled, it stood off the port of Gibraltar to avoid the risk of inspection. Every aspect of its
operations was calculated to avoid tax, ownership obligations and regulatory scrutiny. (33)
Such examples explain why societal expectations for improved corporate behavior result in pressures to
regulate. The postEnron environment has increased support for legislation in the U.S.: in July 2002,
two thirds of Americans agreed that the free market economy works best when strongly regulated.
Bahamas, owned by a Greek through Liberia, and given a certificate of seaworthiness by the U.S.. When
the ship refueled, it stood off the port of Gibraltar to avoid the risk of inspection. Every aspect of its
operations was calculated to avoid tax, ownership obligations and regulatory scrutiny. (33)
Such examples explain why societal expectations for improved corporate behavior result in pressures to
regulate. The postEnron environment has increased support for legislation in the U.S.: in July 2002,
two thirds of Americans agreed that the free market economy works best when strongly regulated.
Government regulation can also create a level playing field for competition: many industries depend on
patent laws to reward innovation and discourage free riders.
Regulation can itself be a doubleedged sword. Disclosure rules could protect firms that externalize
environmental costs. Business and social critic Amy Cortese notes: “With their confidence shaken in
corporate bookkeeping and the market's omniscience, investors are starting to look for other possible
‘off balance sheet’ land mines, including the hidden risks that could be associated with global climate
change…. (and) company officers could be held accountable for failing to protect their companies from
climaterelated risk.”(34) Rules for disclosing such risks could, by implicitly factoring them into the stock
price, keep these shareholder lawsuits at bay.
But all this only proves that mandating disclosure is not enough; it may also be necessary to regulate
behavior. Laws like the Environmental Protection Act don’t just expose – they restrict polluters’
behavior.
Regulation alone won’t produce open enterprises that always do the right thing. And legal compliance is
merely the lowest common denominator. What really counts is leadership with integrity, beyond
compliance.
Conclusion
A sea change is finally happening in corporate governance in the relationship between ownership and
control. Shareholders are steadily acquiring the ability to scrutinize the ompanies whose share they
hold, and the governmetn is helping to ensure that thirdparty overseers auditors and regulatory
agencies are themselves held accountable. In short, the crisis helped to bring about an increase in
transparency. Nevrtheless, after a century and a half of shareholder capitalism, the jury is still out on
the theory that investor oversight can work.
Today's stakeholders expect a new kind of integrity.
Endnotes:
(1) Virgil, The Aenid of Virgil (19 BC)
(3) Alfred W. Crosby, The Measure of Reality: Quantification of Western Europe, 1250 – 1600 (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1997), 216.
(4) Dr. Alfred Dupont Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA:
Belknap, Harvard University Press, 1977).
(5) As the telegraph moved information faster than a messenger, the railway moved people and goods faster than a horse
or a boat. Both, of course, were also cheaper than what they replaced. Another footnote: telegraph operators, of course,
chattered personal messages to one another in the unheralded origin of instant messaging.
(6) Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York: McGraw Hill, 1964), 223.
(7) James W. Carey, Communication As Culture: Essays on Media and Society (Winchester, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 210
211.
(8) Charles S. Briggs and Augustus Maverick, The Story of the Telegraph and a History of the Great Atlantic Cable (Rudd &
Carleton, 1858), cited in Carey, 208.
(9) William P. Andrews, Memoirs on the Euphrates Valley Route (William Allen, 1857), cited in Carey, 209
(10) Market insiders seek to protect and extend their arbitrage opportunities. For example, in 1894 the New York Stock
Exchange banned telephones on the trading floor to create a 30 second time advantage over Boston traders.
(12) Charles R. Geisst, Wall Street: A History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 131.
(13) Ibid, 228.
(14) Harold Evans, The American Century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 223.
(15) Geisst, 192.
(16) Ibid, 228.
(17) Adolf A. Berle and Gardiner C. Means, The Modern Corporation and Private Property (New York: MacMillan Company,
1933)
(18) Ibid, 114.
(19) Ibid, 48
(20) Ibid, 84
(21) Chandler, The Visible Hand, 6 9.
(22) Excerpted in Michael T. Matteson and John M. Ivanevich (eds.), Management Classics, 2nd ed. (Santa Monica, CA:
Goodyear Publishing Company, 1981), 6 8.
(23) Peter F. Drucker, The Practice of Management (New York: Harper & Row, 1954), 284.
(24) Peter F. Drucker, Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices (New York, Harper & Row, 1973), 628.
(25) Ibid, 629.
(26) Thomas J. Peters & Robert H. Waterman Jr, In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best Run Companies
(New York: Harper Collins, 1982)
(27) Michael C. Jensen, A Theory of the Firm: Goernance, Residual Claims, and Organizational Forms (Boston: Harvard
University Press, 2001), 21.
(28) Nitin Nohria, David Dyer, and Frederick Dalzell, Changing Fortunes: Remaking the Industrial Corporation (New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 2002), 172 175
(25) Ibid, 629.
(26) Thomas J. Peters & Robert H. Waterman Jr, In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best Run Companies
(New York: Harper Collins, 1982)
(27) Michael C. Jensen, A Theory of the Firm: Goernance, Residual Claims, and Organizational Forms (Boston: Harvard
University Press, 2001), 21.
(28) Nitin Nohria, David Dyer, and Frederick Dalzell, Changing Fortunes: Remaking the Industrial Corporation (New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 2002), 172 175
(29) Jensen, A Theory of the Firm, 22.
(33) “Comment: Capitalism Must Put Its House In Order: The Prestige Disaster is Yet Another Example of How Unregulated
Business Practices Can have a Calamitous Effect, ” The Observer, November 24, 2002.
(Updated December 3, 2003)
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