Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems, or MEMS, is a technology that in its most general form can be defined as miniaturized mechanical and electro-mechanical

elements (i.e., devices and structures) that are made using the techniques of microfabrication. The critical physical dimensions of MEMS devices can vary from well below one micron on the lower end of the dimensional spectrum, all the way to several millimeters. Likewise, the types of MEMS devices can vary from relatively simple structures having no moving elements, to extremely complex electromechanical systems with multiple moving elements under the control of integrated microelectronics. The one main criterion of MEMS is that there are at least some elements having some sort of mechanical functionality whether or not these elements can move. The term used to define MEMS varies in different parts of the world. In the United States they are predominantly called MEMS, while in some other parts of the world they are called Microsystems Technology or micromachined devices.

While the functional elements of MEMS are miniaturized structures, sensors, actuators, and microelectronics, the most notable (and perhaps most interesting) elements are the microsensors and microactuators. Microsensors and microactuators are appropriately categorized as transducers, which are defined as devices that convert energy from one form to another. In the case of microsensors, the device typically converts a measured mechanical signal into an electrical signal.

Over the past several decades MEMS researchers and developers have demonstrated an extremely large number of microsensors for almost every possible sensing modality including temperature, pressure, inertial forces, chemical species, magnetic fields, radiation, etc. Remarkably, many of these micromachined sensors have demonstrated performances exceeding those of their macroscale counterparts. That is, the micromachined version of, for example, a pressure transducer, usually outperforms a pressure sensor made using the most precise macroscale level machining techniques. Not only is the performance of MEMS devices exceptional, but their method of production leverages the same batch fabrication techniques used in the integrated circuit industry which can translate into low per-device production costs, as well as many other benefits. Consequently, it is possible to not only achieve stellar device performance, but to do so at a relatively low cost level. Not surprisingly, silicon based discrete microsensors were quickly commercially exploited and the markets for these devices continue to grow at a rapid rate.

More recently, the MEMS research and development community has demonstrated a number of microactuators including: microvalves for control of gas and liquid flows; optical switches and mirrors to redirect or modulate light beams; independently controlled micromirror arrays for displays, microresonators for a number of different applications, micropumps to develop positive fluid pressures, microflaps to modulate airstreams on airfoils, as well as many others. Surprisingly, even though these microactuators are extremely small, they frequently can cause effects at the macroscale level; that is, these tiny actuators can perform mechanical feats far larger than their size would imply. For example, researchers have placed small microactuators on the leading edge of airfoils of an aircraft and have been able to steer the aircraft using only these microminiaturized devices.

The real potential of MEMS starts to become fulfilled when these miniaturized sensors, actuators, and structures can all be merged onto a common silicon substrate along with integrated circuits (i.e., microelectronics). While the electronics are fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) process sequences (e.g., CMOS, Bipolar, or BICMOS processes), the micromechanical components are fabricated using compatible "micromachining" processes that selectively etch away parts of the silicon wafer or add new structural layers to form the mechanical and electromechanical devices. It is even more interesting if MEMS can be merged not only with microelectronics, but with other technologies such as photonics, nanotechnology, etc. This is sometimes called heterogeneous integration. Clearly, these technologies are filled with numerous commercial market opportunities.

While more complex levels of integration are the future trend of MEMS technology, the present state-of-the-art is more modest and usually involves a single discrete microsensor, a single discrete microactuator, a single microsensor integrated with electronics, a multiplicity of essentially identical microsensors integrated with electronics, a single microactuator integrated with electronics, or a multiplicity of essentially identical microactuators integrated with electronics. Nevertheless, as MEMS fabrication methods advance, the promise is an enormous design freedom wherein any type of microsensor and any type of microactuator can be merged with microelectronics as well as photonics, nanotechnology, etc., onto a single substrate.

microsensor as well as a microactuator.

This vision of MEMS whereby microsensors, microactuators and microelectronics and other technologies, can be integrated onto a single microchip is expected to be one of the most important technological breakthroughs of the future. This will enable the development of smart products by augmenting the computational ability of microelectronics with the perception and control capabilities of microsensors and microactuators. Microelectronic integrated circuits can be thought of as the "brains" of a system and MEMS augments this decision-making capability with "eyes" and "arms", to allow microsystems to sense and control the environment. Sensors gather information from the environment through measuring mechanical, thermal, biological, chemical, optical, and magnetic phenomena. The electronics then process the information derived from the sensors and through some decision making capability direct the actuators to respond by moving, positioning, regulating, pumping, and filtering, thereby controlling the environment for some desired outcome or purpose. Furthermore, because MEMS devices are manufactured using batch fabrication techniques, similar to ICs, unprecedented levels of functionality, reliability, and sophistication can be placed on a small silicon chip at a relatively low cost. MEMS technology is extremely diverse and fertile, both in its expected application areas, as well as in how the devices are designed and manufactured. Already, MEMS is revolutionizing many product categories by enabling complete systems-on-a-chip to be realized.

Nanotechnology is the ability to manipulate matter at the atomic or molecular level to make something useful at the nano-dimensional scale. Basically, there are two approaches in implementation: the top-down and the bottom-up. In the top-down approach, devices and structures are made using many of the same techniques as used in MEMS except they are made smaller in size, usually by employing more advanced photolithography and etching methods. The bottom-up approach typically involves deposition, growing, or self-assembly technologies. The advantages of nano-dimensional devices over MEMS involve benefits mostly derived from the scaling lawSome experts believe that nanotechnology promises to: a). allow us to put essentially every atom or molecule in the place and position desired that is, exact positional control for assembly, b). allow us to make almost any structure or material consistent with the laws of physics that can be specified at the atomic or molecular level; and c). allow us to have manufacturing costs not greatly exceeding the cost of the required raw materials and energy used in fabrication (i.e., massive parallelism).

s, which can also present some challenges as well.

Although MEMS and Nanotechnology are sometimes cited as separate and distinct technologies, in reality the distinction between the two is not so clear-cut. In fact, these two technologies are highly dependent on one another. The well-known scanning tunneling-tip microscope (STM) which is used to detect individual atoms and molecules on the nanometer scale is a MEMS device. Similarly the atomic force microscope (AFM) which is used to manipulate the placement and position of individual atoms and molecules on the surface of a substrate is a MEMS device as well. In fact, a variety of MEMS technologies are required in order to interface with the nano-scale domain.

Likewise, many MEMS technologies are becoming dependent on nanotechnologies for successful new products. For example, the crash airbag accelerometers that are manufactured using MEMS technology can have their long-term reliability degraded due to dynamic in-use stiction effects between the proof mass and the substrate. A nanotechnology called Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAM) coatings are now routinely used to treat the surfaces of the moving MEMS elements so as to prevent stiction effects from occurring over the products life.

Many experts have concluded that MEMS and nanotechnology are two different labels for what is essentially a technology encompassing highly miniaturized things that cannot be seen with the human eye. Note that a similar broad definition exists in the integrated circuits domain which is frequently referred to as microelectronics technology even though state-of-the-art IC technologies typically have devices with dimensions of tens of nanometers. Whether or not MEMS and nanotechnology are one in the same, it is unquestioned that there are overwhelming mutual dependencies between these two technologies that will only increase in time. Perhaps what is most important are the common benefits afforded by these technologies, including: increased information capabilities; miniaturization of systems; new materials resulting from new science at miniature dimensional scales; and increased functionality and autonomy for systems.

MEMS and Nanotechnology Applications

There are numerous possible applications for MEMS and Nanotechnology. As a breakthrough technology, allowing unparalleled synergy between previously unrelated fields such as biology and microelectronics, many new MEMS and Nanotechnology applications will emerge, expanding beyond that which is currently identified or known. Here are a few applications of current interest:

Biotechnology

MEMS and Nanotechnology is enabling new discoveries in science and engineering such as the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) microsystems for DNA amplification and identification, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), capillary electrophoresis, electroporation, micromachined Scanning Tunneling Microscopes (STMs), biochips for detection of hazardous chemical and biological agents, and microsystems for high-throughput drug screening and selection.

Medicine

There are a wide variety of applications for MEMS in medicine. The first and by far the most successful application of MEMS in medicine (at least in terms of number of devices and market size) are MEMS pressure sensors, which have been in use for several decades. The market for these pressure sensors is extremely diverse and highly fragmented, with a few high-volume markets and many lower volume ones. Some of the applications of MEMS pressure sensors in medicine include:

The largest market for MEMS pressure sensors in the medical sector is the disposable sensor used to monitor blood pressure in IV lines of patients in intensive care. These devices were first introduced in the early 1980s. They replaced other technologies that cost over $ 500 and which had a substantial recurring cost since they had to be sterilized and recalibrated after each use. MEMS disposable pressure sensors are delivered precalibrated in a sterilized package from the factory at a cost of around $10. MEMS pressure sensors are used to measure intrauterine pressure during birth. The device is housed in a catheter that is placed between the baby's head and the uterine wall. During delivery, the baby's blood pressure is monitored for problems during the mother's contractions. MEMS pressure sensors are used in hospitals and ambulances as monitors of a patients vital signs, specifically the patients blood pressure and respiration. The MEMS pressure sensors in respiratory monitoring are used in ventilators to monitor the patients breathing. MEMS pressure sensors are used for eye surgery to measure and control the vacuum level used to remove fluid from the eye, which is cleaned of debris and replaced back into the eye during surgery Special hospital beds for burn victims that employ inflatable mattresses use MEMS pressure sensors to regulate the pressure inside a series of individual inflatable chambers in the mattress. Sections of the mattress can be inflated as needed to reduce pain as well as improve patient healing. Physicians office and hospital blood analyzers employ MEMS pressure sensors as barometric pressure correction for the analysis of concentrations of O2, CO2, calcium, potassium, and glucose in a patient's blood. MEMS pressure sensors are used in inhalers to monitor the patients breathing cycle and release the medication at the proper time in the breathing cycle for optimal effect. MEMS pressure sensors are used in kidney dialysis to monitor the inlet and outlet pressures of blood and the dialysis solution and to regulate the flow rates during the procedure.

MEMS pressure sensors are used in drug infusion pumps of many types to monitor the flow rate and detect for obstructions and blockages that indicate that the drug is not being properly delivered to the patient.

The contribution to patient care for all of these applications has been enormous. More recently, MEMS pressure sensors have been developed and are being marketed that have wireless interrogation capability. These sensors can be implanted into a human body and the pressure can be measured using a remotely scanned wand. Another application are MEMS inertial sensors, specifically accelerometers and rate sensors which are being used as activity sensors. Perhaps the foremost application of inertial sensors in medicine is in cardiac pacemakers wherein they are used to help determine the optimum pacing rate for the patient based on their activity level. MEMS devices are also starting to be employed in drug delivery devices, for both ambulatory and implantable applications. MEMS electrodes are also being used in neuro-signal detection and neuro-stimulation applications. A variety of biological and chemical MEMS sensors for invasive and non-invasive uses are beginning to be marketed. Lab-on-a-chip and miniaturized biochemical analytical instruments are being marketed as well.

Communications

High frequency circuits are benefiting considerably from the advent of RF-MEMS technology. Electrical components such as inductors and tunable capacitors can be improved significantly compared to their integrated counterparts if they are made using MEMS and Nanotechnology. With the integration of such components, the performance of communication circuits will improve, while the total circuit area, power consumption and cost will be reduced. In addition, the mechanical switch, as developed by several research groups, is a key component with huge potential in various RF and microwave circuits. The demonstrated samples of mechanical switches have quality factors much higher than anything previously available. Another successful application of RF-MEMS is in resonators as mechanical filters for communication circuits.

Inertial Sensing

MEMS inertial sensors, specifically accelerometers and gyroscopes, are quickly gaining market acceptance. For example, MEMS accelerometers have displaced conventional accelerometers for crash air-bag deployment systems in automobiles. The previous technology approach used several bulky accelerometers made of discrete components mounted in the front of the car with separate electronics near the air-bag and cost more than $50 per device. MEMS technology has made it possible to integrate the accelerometer and electronics onto a single silicon chip at a cost of only a few dollars. These MEMS accelerometers are much smaller, more functional, lighter, more reliable, and are produced for a fraction of the cost of the conventional macroscale accelerometer elements. More recently, MEMS gyroscopes (i.e., rate sensors) have been developed for both automobile and consumer electronics applications. MEMS inertial sensors are now being used in every car sold as well as notable customer electronic handhelds such as Apple iPhones and the Nintendo Wii.

Current Challenges
Some of the obstacles facing organizations in the development of MEMS and Nanotechnology devices include:

Access to Fabrication

Most organizations who wish to explore the potential of MEMS and Nanotechnology have little or no internal resources for designing, prototyping, or manufacturing devices, as well as little to no expertise among their staff in developing these technologies. Few organizations will build their own fabrication facilities or establish technical development teams because of the prohibitive cost. Therefore, these organizations will benefit greatly from the availability of MNXs fabrication services, which offers its customers affordable access to the best MEMS and Nano fabrication technologies available.

Packaging

MEMS packaging is more challenging than IC packaging due to the diversity of MEMS devices and the requirement that many of these devices need to be simultaneously in contact with their environment as well as protected from the environment. Frequently, many MEMS and Nano device development efforts must develop a new and specialized package for the device to meet the application requirements. As a result, packaging can often be one of the single most expensive and time consuming tasks in an overall product development program. The MNX staff are experts in packaging solutions for devices for any application.

Fabrication Knowledge Required

MEMS device developers must have a high level of fabrication knowledge and practical experience coupled with a significant amount of innovative engineering skill in order to create and implement successful device designs. Often the development of even the most mundane MEMS device requires very specialized skills. Without this expertise and knowledge, at best device development projects can cost far more and take much longer. At worst, they can result in failure. The MNX has more expertise and knowledge in device design and fabrication than anyone in the world. We can help save you time, money and frustration. If you have questions about fabrication, contact us atengineering@[Link] or at 703-262-5368.

Fabricating MEMS and Nanotechnology

MEMS fabrication is an extremely exciting endeavor due to the customized nature of process technologies and the diversity of processing capabilities. MEMS fabrication uses many of the same techniques that are used in the integrated circuit domain such as oxidation, diffusion, ion implantation, LPCVD, sputtering, etc., and combines these capabilities with highly specialized micromachining processes. Some of the most widely used micromachining processes are discussed below.

Note: the MNX has more expertise and knowledge in MEMS and Nanotechnology fabrication than anyone in the world. We can help you save time, money and frustration. If you have specific questions about fabrication, contact us at engineering@[Link] or at 703-262-5368.

Bulk Micromachining

The oldest micromachining technology is bulk micromachining. This technique involves the selective removal of the substrate material in order to realize miniaturized mechanical components. Bulk micromachining can be accomplished using chemical or physical means, with chemical means being far more widely used in the MEMS industry.

A widely used bulk micromachining technique is chemical wet etching, which involves the immersion of a substrate into a solution of reactive chemical that will etch exposed regions of the substrate at measurable rates. Chemical wet etching is popular in MEMS because it can provide a very high etch rate and selectivity. Furthermore, the etch rates and selectivity can be modified by: altering the chemical composition of the etch solution; adjusting the etch solution temperature; modifying the dopant concentration of the substrate; and modifying which crystallographic planes of the substrate are exposed to the etchant solution.

There are two general types of chemical wet etching in bulk micromachining: isotropic wet etching and anisotropic wet etching. In isotropic wet etching, the etch rate is not dependent on the crystallographic orientation of the substrate and the etching proceeds in all directions at equal rates. In theory, lateral etching under the masking layer etches at the same rate as the etch rate in normal direction. However, in practice lateral etching is usually much slower without stirring, and consequently isotropic wet etching is almost always performed with vigorous stirring of the etchant solution. Figure 1 illustrates the profile of the etch using an isotopic wet etchant with and without stirring of the etchant solution.

Any etching process requires a masking material to be used, with preferably a high selectivity relative to the substrate material. Common masking materials for isotropic wet silicon etching include silicon dioxide and silicon nitride. Silicon nitride has a much lower etch rate compared to silicon dioxide and therefore is more frequently used.

The etch rate of some isotropic wet etchant solution mixtures are dependent on the dopant concentration of the substrate material. For example: the commonly used mixture of HC2H3O2:HNO3:HF in the ratio of 8:3:1 will etch highly doped silicon (> 5 x 1018 atoms/cm3) at a rate of 50 to 200 microns/hour, but will etch lightly doped silicon material at a rate 150 times less. Nevertheless, the etch rate selectivity with respect to dopant concentration is highly dependent on solution mixture.

The much more widely used wet etchants for silicon micromachining are anisotropic wet etchants. Anisotropic wet etching involves the immersion of the substrate into a chemical solution wherein the etch rate is dependent on crystallographic orientation of the substrate. The mechanism by which the etching varies according to silicon crystal planes is attributed to the different bond configurations and atomic density that the different planes exposed to the etchant solution. Wet anisotropic chemical etching is typically described in terms of etch rates according to the different normal crystallographic places, usually <100>, <110>, and <111>. In general, silicon anisotropic etching etches more slowly along the <111> planes than all the other planes in the lattice and the difference in etch rate between the different lattice directions can be as high as 1000 to 1. It is thought that the reason for the slower etch rate of the <111> planes is that these planes have the highest density of exposed silicon atoms in the etchant solution, as well as 3 silicon bonds below the plane, thereby leading to some amount of chemical shielding of the surface.

The ability to delineate the different crystal planes of the silicon lattice in anisotropic wet chemical etching provides a high-resolution etch capability with reasonably tight dimensional control. It also provides the ability for two-sided processing to embody self-isolated structures wherein only one side is exposed to the environment. This assists in packaging of the device and is very useful for MEMS devices exposed to harsh environments, such as pressure sensors. Anisotropic etching techniques have been around for over 25 years and are commonly used in the manufacturing of silicon pressure sensors as well as bulk micromachined accelerometers.

Figure 2 below is an illustration of some of the shapes that are possible using anisotropic wet etching of <100> oriented silicon substrates including an inverted pyramidal and a flat bottomed trapezoidal etch pit. Note that the shape of the etch pattern is primarily determined by the slower etching <111> planes. Figures 3a and 3b are SEM photographs of a silicon substrate after an anisotropic wet etching. Figure 3a shows a trapezoidal etch pit that has been subsequently diced across the etch pit and Figure 3b shows the backside of a thin membrane that could be used to make a pressure sensor. It is important to note that the etch profiles shown in the Figures are only for a <100> oriented silicon wafer; substrates with other crystallographic orientations will exhibit different shapes. Occasionally, substrates with other orientations are used in MEMS fabrication, but given the cost, lead times and availability, the vast majority of substrates used in bulk micromachining have <100> orientation.

High-Aspect Ratio MEMS Fabrication Technologies

Deep Reactive Ion Etching of Silicon

Deep reactive ion etching or DRIE is a relatively new fabrication technology that has been widely adopted by the MEMS community. This technology enables very high aspect ratio etches to be performed into silicon substrates. The sidewalls of the etched holes are nearly vertical and the depth of the etch can be hundreds or even thousands of microns into the silicon substrate.

Figure 7 illustrates how deep reactive ion etching is accomplished. The etch is a dry plasma etch and uses a high density plasma to alternately etch the silicon and deposit an etch resistant polymer layer on the sidewalls. The etching of the silicon is performed using a SF6 chemistry whereas the deposition of the etch resistant polymer layer on the sidewalls uses a C4F8 chemistry. Mass flow controllers alternate back and forth between these two chemistries during the etch. The protective polymer layer is deposited on the sidewalls as well as on the bottom of the etch pit, but the anisotropy of the etch removes the polymer at the bottom of the etch pit faster than the polymer is removed from the sidewalls. The sidewalls are not perfected or optically smooth and if the sidewall is magnified under SEM inspection, a characteristic washboard or scalloping pattern is seen in the sidewalls. The etch rates on most commercial DRIE systems varies from 1 to 4 microns per minute. DRIE systems are single wafer tools. Photoresist can be used as a masking layer for DRIE etching. The selectivity with photoresist and oxide is about 75 to 1 and 150 to 1, respectively. For a through wafer etch a relatively thick photoresist masking layer will be required. The aspect ratio of the etch can be as high as 30 to 1, but in practice tends to be 15 to 1. The process recipe depends on the amount of exposed silicon due to loading effects in the system, with larger exposed areas etching at a much faster rate compared to smaller exposed areas. Consequently, the etch must frequently be characterized for the exact mask feature and depth to obtain desirable results.

Figure 8 is a SEM of a MEMS component fabricated using DRIE and wafer bonding. This device was made using an SOI wafer wherein a backside etch was performed through the handle wafer, stopping on the buried oxide layer, and a frontside DRIE was performed on the SOI device layer. Then the buried oxide was removed to release the microstructure, allowing it to freely move.

Figure 9 is a cross section SEM of a silicon microstructure fabricated using DRIE technology. As can be seen, the etch is very deep into the silicon substrate and the sidewalls are nearly vertical.