reactive pollutants; and the high concentrations of largely non-reactive pollutants at points or corridors along or near roads.

The motor vehicle is a primary contributor to both forms, accounting for an estimated 70 per cent of the CO, 50 per cent of the HC, and 30 per cent of the NOx. Area-wide conditions are exacerbated when temperature inversions trap pollutants near the ground surface and there is little or no wind, so that concentrations of pollutants increase. For some individuals, eyes burn and breathing is difficult. It is alleged that lives can be shortened and some deaths have actually resulted from these exposures. Also, certain kinds of vegetation are killed, stunted, or the foliage burned. The quantity of air pollutants can be reduced by judicious design. Exhaust emissions are high while vehicle engines are operating at aboveaverage levels of output, for example while accelerating from a stationary position or when climbing a steep hill. Smooth traffic flow at constant speeds, such as in "green wave" conditions on a signalised route, reduces exhaust emissions in addition to leading to a reduction in noise levels. By way of contrast, speed humps, which are popular as speed-reducing devices in residential areas, have the dual penalty of increased pollution and increased noise levels. In rural areas, vertical alignments should be designed with a minimum of "false rises". In addition to being able to modify the quantity of pollutants in the atmosphere, the designer can influence the extent to which emissions impact on local communities. Temperature inversions that trap polluted air are typically associated with closed or bowl-shaped valleys. 3-25

If at all possible, major routes should not traverse such areas but should rather be located on the higher ground surrounding inversionprone valleys, with relatively low-volume road links serving developments in the valley areas. Attention should also be paid to prevailing wind directions so that routes bypassing local communities are located downwind of these settlements.

3.6.5

Weather and geomorphology

Land shape, on a broad scale, as well as prevailing weather conditions, which could influence the design, are factors over which the designer does not have any control. Certain areas of the country are prone to misty conditions and others subject to high rainfall. Both are factors that have to be taken into account in design. Mist and rain both cause reduced visibility. Where these are a regular occurrence, they tend to lie in belts, sometimes fairly narrow, across the landscape. Designers should acquire local knowledge about the quirks of the weather patterns and seek ways to reduce their effect. Where it is not possible to avoid a mist belt, the designer should pay particular attention to the concept of the "forgiving highway", by providing flat side slopes and avoiding alignments where short radius curves follow each other in quick succession. Steep downgrades followed by short radius horizontal curves are particularly to be avoided. A real effort should also be put into avoiding high fills. In conditions of heavy mist, vehicles will tend to move very slowly but, even

Chapter 3: Design Controls

Geometric Design Guide

at speeds significantly below the design speed of the road, the restricted visibility will lead to high levels of stress. Drivers are more likely to make incorrect decisions when under stress and designers should thus do everything possible to keep stress levels within manageable limits.

If hourly flows are ordered from highest to lowest, it is customary, in rural areas, to design for the thirtieth highest hourly flow, i.e that flow which is exceeded in only 29 hours of the year. This is because rural roads have very high seasonal peaks and it is not economical to have a road congestion-free every hour throughout the year. In urban areas, seasonal peaks are less pronounced and the 100th highest hourly flow is considered a realistic flow level for design purposes.

3.7 3.7.1

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS General

Factual information on expected traffic volumes is an essential input to design. This indicates the need for improvements and directly affects the geometric features and design. Traffic flows vary both seasonally and during the day. The designer should be familiar with the extent of these fluctuations to enable him or her to assess the flow patterns. The directional distribution of the traffic and the manner in which its composition varies are also important parameters. A thorough understanding of the manner in which all of these behave is a basic requirement of any realistic design. To predict hourly flows, it is necessary to know the ADT and the peaking factor, . The parameter, , is a descriptor of the traffic flow on a given road and depends on factors such as the percentage and incidence of holiday traffic, the relative sizes of the daily peaks, etc. The peaking factor can fluctuate between -0,1 and -0,4. A value of -0,1 indicates minimal seasonal peaking. This value of should be used in urban designs. A value of -0,4 suggests very high seasonal peaks and would normally be applied to roads such as the N3. As a general rule, a value of -0,2 could be used as being a typical value. Equation 3.1 below can be used to estimate flows between the highest and 1030th highest hour. Although not a particularly good model, flows beyond the 1030th hour can be estimated by using a straight line relationship from the 1030th flow to zero veh/hr at the 8760th or last hour of the year. QN where QN ADT N 3-26
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3.7.2

Traffic volumes

Geometric Design Guide

Traffic flow is measured by the number of vehicles passing a particular station during a given period of time. Typically, the flow of interest is the Average Daily Traffic (ADT). Flows may also be reported per hour, such as the "hourly observed traffic volume" or the "thirtieth-highest hour" or "hundredth-hour", which are commonly used for design purposes. Very short duration flows, such as for a five-minute period, are typically applied to studies of signalised intersections.

= = = = =

0,072ADT(N/1030) two-directional flow in N-th hour of year (veh/h) average daily traffic (veh/day) hour of year peaking factor.

It is interesting to note that the peak hour factor, K, quoted in the Highway Capacity Manual is often assumed for design purposes to be 0,15. Reference is commonly made to the 30th highest hour of the year as being the design hour. Applying a value of -0,2 to , and assuming N to be 30, QN according to Equation 3.1 is 0,146 x ADT for the thirtieth highest hour.

towards the central business district (with relatively low outward-bound flows), whereas the afternoon peak is in the reverse direction. It is important to realize that the design flow is actually a composite and not a single value. A road must be able to accommodate the major flow in both directions. The actual distribution to be used for design pur-

Designers need to estimate future traffic flows for a road section. It is recommended that a design period of 20 years be used for forward planning. The 30th or 100th highest flow used in the design is that occurring in the design year, typically twenty years hence. Staged construction or widening of roads over this period can be a feature of an economical design.

poses should be measured in the field. If an existing road is to be reconstructed, the field studies can be carried out on it beforehand. For new facilities, measurements should be made on adjacent roads from which it is expected the traffic will be diverted and modelling techniques applied. Directional distribution is relatively stable and

The capacity of rural road sections is influenced by the following key characteristics:

does not change materially from year to year. Relationships established from current traffic movements are normally also applicable to future movements.

Road configuration - e.g. two-lane twoway, multi-lane divided or undivided; Operating speed; Terrain; Lane and shoulder width; Traffic composition, and Gradients.

3.7.4

Traffic composition

Vehicles of different sizes and mass have different operating characteristics. Trucks have a higher mass/power ratio and occupy more roadthey constitute a greater impedance to traffic flow than passenger vehicles, with the overall effect that one truck is equivalent to several passenger cars. For design purposes, the percentage of truck traffic during the peak hours has to be estimated. For design of a particular highway, data on the composition of traffic should be determined from traffic studies. 3-27
Chapter 3: Design Controls

In the case of two-lane two- way roads, the following additional factors are important:

Directional distribution of traffic flow; and Passing opportunities - sight distance,

overtaking lanes, climbing lanes or slow vehicle turnout lanes.

3.7.3

Directional distribution

Directional distribution of traffic is an indication of the tidal flow during the day. In urban areas, the morning peak traffic is typically inbound

Truck traffic is normally

Geometric Design Guide

way space than passenger cars. Consequently,

expressed as a percentage of total traffic during the design hour in the case of a two-lane road; and as a percentage of total traffic in the predominant direction of travel in the case of a multi-lane road. It is not practical to design for a heterogeneous traffic stream and, for this reason, trucks are converted to equivalent Passenger Car Units (PCUs). The number of PCU's associated with a single truck is a measure of the impedance that it offers to the passenger cars in the traffic stream. This topic is exhaustively addressed in the Highway Capacity Manual and is not discussed further here.

It is difficult to define the life of a "road" because major segments may have different lengths of physical life. Each segment is subject to variations in estimated life expectancy because of influences not readily subject to analysis such as obsolescence and unexpected changes in land use, resulting in changes in traffic volumes, pattern and load. Regardless of the anticipated physical life of the various elements of the road, it is customary to use a single value as the "design life". In essence, the road is expected to provide an acceptable level of service for this period. Whether or not any of its various components have a longer physical life expectancy than this design life is irrelevant. For example, the alignment and, in some instances, the surfacing of roads built during Roman times are still in use today without there being any reference to a design life of 2 000 years. A typical value of design life is twenty years. In the case of major and correspondingly expensive structures a design life of fifty years may be assumed. This should not, however, be confused with the concept of a bridge being able to withstand the worst flood in fifty years.

Passenger car unit equivalents have, in general, been derived from observations as illustrated in Table 3.8. The values offered serve only as a rough indication and the designer should refer to the Highway Capacity Manual for detailed calculation of PCU's appropriate to the different environments and circumstances.

Geometric Design Guide

3.7.5

Traffic growth

The design of new roads or of improvements to existing roads should be based on the future traffic expected to use the facilities. 3-28

3.7.6

Capacity and design volumes

The term capacity is used here to define the ability of a road to accommodate traffic under

Chapter 3: Design Controls

given circumstances. Factors to be taken into account are the physical features of the road itself and the prevailing traffic conditions

Physical features having considerable influence are the type of intersection, i.e. whether plain, channelised, roundabout or signalised, the number of intersecting traffic lanes and the adequacy of speed-change lanes.

Prevailing road conditions Capacity figures for uninterrupted flow on highways have to be modified if certain minimum physical design features are not adhered to. Poor physical features that tend to cause a reduction in capacity are:

Unlike the physical features of the highway, which are literally fixed in position and have definite measurable effects on traffic flows, the prevailing traffic conditions are not fixed but vary from hour to hour throughout the day. Hence, the flows at any particular time are a function of the speeds of vehicles, the composition of the traffic streams and the manner in which the vehicles interact with each other, as well as of the physical features of the roadway itself.

Narrow traffic lanes.

Lane widths of

3.65 m are accepted as being the minimum necessary for heavy volumes of mixed traffic, i.e. before capacity of the lane is reduced.

Inadequate shoulders. The narrowness, or lack of, shoulders alongside a road cause vehicles to travel closer to the centre of the carriageway, thereby increasing the medial traffic friction. In addition, vehicles making emergency stops must, of necessity, park on the carriageway. This causes a substantial reduction in the effective width of the road, thereby reducing capacity.

Capacity The term "capacity" was introduced in the USA in the Highway Capacity Manual, in which it is defined as "the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a roadway or in a designated lane during one hour without the traffic density being so great as to cause unreasonable delay, hazard, or restriction to the drivers' freedom to manoeuvre under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions". This definition gives a reasonable method of approach but, in arbitrary criteria of what constitutes restriction of traffic movement, or "congestion". The Highway Capacity Manual procedure must however be used for specific road capacity designs. practice, it is necessary to choose one or more

Side obstructions. Vertical obstructions such as poles, bridge abutments, retain ing walls or parked cars that are located within about 1,5 m of the edge of the carriageway contribute towards a reduction in the effective width of the outside traffic lane.

Imperfect horizontal or vertical curvature. Long and/or steep hills and sharp bends result in restricted sight distance. As drivers then have reduced opportunities to pass, the capacity of the facility will be reduced.

In addition to the above, the capacities of certain rural roads and the great majority of urban roads are controlled by the layouts of intersections. 3-29
Chapter 3: Design Controls

For typical South African conditions and to balance financial, safety and operational consider-

Geometric Design Guide

ations it is recommended that the capacity of a two-lane rural road be taken on average as being between 10 000 and 12 000 vehicles per day while, for freeways, consideration could be given to changing from a four-lane to a six-lane freeway when the traffic flow is of the order of 35 000 to 40 000 vehicles per day.

Classification of roads by design types based on the major geometric features (e.g. freeways) is the most helpful one for road location and design purposes. Classification by route numbering is the most helpful for road traffic operational purposes, whilst administrative classification is used to denote the level of government responsible for, and the method of, financing road facilities. Functional classification, the

3.8

ROAD CLASSIFICATION

grouping of roads by the character of service The classification of roads into different operational systems, functional classes or geometric types is necessary for communication between engineers, administrators and the general public. Classification is the tool by which a complex network of roads can be subdivided into groups having similar characteristics. A single classification system, satisfactory for all purposes, would be advantageous but has not been found to be practicable. Moreover, in any classification system the division between classes is often arbitrary and, consequently, opinions differ on the best definition of any class. There are various schemes for classifying roads and the class definitions generally vary depending on the purpose of classification. The principal purposes of road classification are Although numerous classification criteria are used on road networks world-wide, in South Africa there are basically three criteria used to classify road types. These are: they provide, was developed for transportation planning purposes.

3.8.1

Classification criteria for South

African roads

Functional classification; Administrative classification, and Design Type classification, based on traffic usage.

This document uses the third type for design purposes. As a result of growing awareness of the interdependency of the various modes of transport as well as the creation of Metropolitan Transport Authorities within South Africa's major metropolitan areas there is considerable overlap between the functional and administrative classification criteria. Within these metropolitan areas, the general public is more dependent on, and understands, a route numbering or functional classification than on an administrative classification of roads within the area.

Geometric Design Guide

to:-

Establish logical integrated systems that, because of their particular service, should be administered by the same jurisdiction;

Relate geometric design control and other design standards to the roads in each class, and Establish a basis for developing longrange programmes, improvement priori ties and financial plans.

3-30
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Although these guidelines are based on a design type classification, the three different approaches mentioned above are briefly described in order to provide a picture of the road system hierarchy in South Africa.

Another and less comprehensive form of functional classification was developed for the purposes of road signing as shown in the South African Road Traffic Signs Manual. As stated in SARTSM, "There are definite limits to the number of ways in which GUIDANCE signs and specifically DIRECTION signs can be made to indicate with sufficient immediate recognition potential, the different classes into which the road network is divided for signing purposes." Classification for signing thus differentiates mainly between numbered and unnumbered routes and, in respect of numbered routes, also draws a distinction between freeways and other roads.

3.8.2

Functional classification concept

For transportation planning purposes, road are most effectively classified by function. The functional classification system adopted for the South African road network is illustrated in Table 3.9. This was used for the South African Rural Road Needs Study carried out during the early 1980s.

3-31
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Geometric Design Guide

Roads have two functions: to provide mobility and to provide land access. However from a design standpoint, these functions are incompatible. For mobility, high or continued speeds are desirable and variable or low speeds undesirable; for land access, low speeds are desirable and high speeds undesirable. For example, freeways provide a high degree of mobility, with access provided only at spaced interchanges to preserve the high-speed, high-volume characteristics of the facility. The opposite is true for local, low-speed roads that primarily provide local access. The general relationship of functionally classified systems in serving mobility and land access is illustrated in Figure 3.4.

arate levels of government each have a roads function mandated to them. Despite this separation of authority for various classes or roads, it is essential to bear in mind that roads act as a total system or network and that the subdivision of roads into administrative classes bears no relation to the functional type of a road under the control of a specific authority. The administrative classification approach thus divides the South African road network into:

National, Provincial, and Local Authority roads.

This administrative classification of roads also bears no relation to the design type of a road under the control of a specific authority. Thus, until the turn of the 21st century, there were sections of National Roads that were unsurfaced, with very low traffic volumes, the most heavily trafficked roads in South Africa, also up to the turn of the century, often being the responsibility of a local authority. Furthermore certain "routes" in the country comprise both National and Provincial roads, and could even include local authority roads. Administratively, a National Road, which is denoted as such by a legal proclamation, in general comprises those roads that form the principal avenues of communication between major regions of the country, and/or between major population conurbations and/or between major regions of South Africa and other countries.

Given a functional classification, design criteria can be applied to encourage the use of the road as intended. Design features that can convey the level of functional classification to the driver include width of roadway, continuity of alignment, spacing of intersections, frequency of access points, building setbacks, alignment and grade standards, and traffic controls.

3.8.3

Administrative classification

Geometric Design Guide

Legislation and, in some instances, the Constitution, assigns to certain levels of government the responsibilities for providing, regulating and operating roads and streets for public use. This concept and the principles of law that support it were developed in Great Britain, and even earlier by the Romans. Within the limits of its constitutional powers, a particular road authority may delegate its authority for roads to bodies such as a Roads Board or a Toll Road Concessionaire. In South Africa, the three sep3-32

3.8.4

Design type classification

The most widely accepted design type criteria are those developed by AASHTO which classify a road system into:

Freeways;

Chapter 3: Design Controls

Arterial roads other than freeways, and Collector roads.

Design designations of these specific National Roads are as follows; Class I Class IA Primary Roads Primary Freeways in rural areas

For each classification, specific design standards and criteria and access and other policies have been developed and are applied.

For use in the present document the following service or design classifications are proposed,

Illustrative threshold ADT (with more than 12% heavy vehicles) = 15 000 veh/d.

Figure 3.4: Relationship of functional road classes

terms.

Each classification groups roads with

Average travel distances on links indicated by at least 45 per cent of the trips being more than 2 hours in duration;

similar functions. The factors that influence the classification of a roadway to a certain group include;

May be provided for network continuity purposes, and Minimum design speed 130 km/h. Primary Freeways in metropolitan areas

Trip purpose (for the majority of users); Trip length; Size and type of population centre served; Traffic characteristics, and Network and system requirements

Class IB

Illustrative threshold ADT = 20 000 veh/d

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Geometric Design Guide

related to design traffic volumes given in ADT

Average travel distance on links indicat ed by majority of trips being less than 2 hours in duration Form integral element of Metropolitan Road Network Generally extension of Rural Freeways (Class IA roads) Minimum design speed 130 km/h Primary Arterials, 4 lane single carriageway roads Primary Rural Arterials

Class II Class IIA

Generally provided when 2 lane single carriageway road reaches capacity and freeway not financially affordable Ilustrative threshold ADT : 8 000 - 10 000 veh/d, with bottom end of scale applicable where percentage of truck traffic exceed 15 per cent

Minimum design speed 120 km/h Primary Metropolitan Arterial Secondary Rural Arterial Design in context in which it operates. Provided to address inter-regional travel demands, or providing access to tourist or National resource areas Provided to address inter-regional travel demands, or providing access to tourist or National resource areas

Class IIB Class III

Provided to address inter-regional travel demands, or providing access to tourist or National resource areas

Geometric Design Guide

Two lane, single carriageway roads Class IIIA Design ADT greater than 4 000 veh/d Minimum design speed 120 km/h Class IIIB Design ADT 500 - 4 000 veh/d Minimum design speed 110 km/h Class IIIC Design ADT less than 500 veh/d Minimum design speed 100 km/h.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
4 ROAD DESIGN ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 4.1 4.2 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 4.2.1 General Controls for horizontal alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 4.2.2 Tangents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 4.2.3 Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 4.2.4 Superelevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 4.2.5 Transition curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17 4.2.6 Lane widening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18 4.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21 4.3.1 General controls for vertical alignment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21 4.3.2 Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22 4.3.3 Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26 4.4 CROSS-SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29 4.4.1 General controls for cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30 4.4.2 Basic Lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-32 4.4.3 Auxiliary lanes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-33 4.4.4 Kerbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-39 4.4.5 Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-40 4.4.6 Medians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-43 4.4.7 Outer separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-45 4.4.8 Boulevards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-45 4.4.9 Bus stops and taxi lay-byes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-46 4.4.10 Sidewalks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-48 4.4.11 Cycle paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-49 4.4.12 Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-51 4.4.13 Verges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-52 4.4.14 Clearance profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-53 4.4.15 Provision for utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-53 4.4.16 Drainage elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-55

LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Minimum radii for various values of emax (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 Table 4.2: Design domain for emax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9 Table 4.3: Values of superelevation for above min radii of curvature (%): emax = 4 % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11 Table 4.4: Values of superelevation for above min radii of curvature (%): emax = 6 % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12 Table 4.5: Values of superelevation for above min radii of curvature (%): emax = 8 % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 Table 4.6: Values of superelevation for above minradii of curvature (%): emax = 10 %. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 Table 4.7: Maximum relative gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14 Table 4.8: Lane adjustment factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15 Table 4.9: Maximum radii for use in spiral transition curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18 Table 4.10: Lengths of grade for 15 km/h speed reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24 Table 4.11: Maximum gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24 Table 4.12: Minimum values of k for crest curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27 Table 4.13: Minimum k-values for barrier sight distance on crest curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27 Table 4.14: Minimum k-values for sag curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29 Table 4.15: Warrant for climbing lanes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35 Table 4.16: Shoulder widths for undivided rural roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-42 Table 4.17: Warrants for pedestrian footways in rural areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-49 Table 4.18: Cycle lane widths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-51 Table 4.19: Typical widths of roadside elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-53 Table 4.20: Scour velocities for various materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-57

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: Dynamics of a vehicle on a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 Figure 4.2: Methods of distributing of e and f. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10 Figure 4.3: Attainment of superelevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15 Figure 4.4: Superelevation runoff on reverse curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16 Figure 4.5: Superelevation runoff on broken-back curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16 Figure 4.6: Typical turning path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19 Figure 4.7: Truck speeds on grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23 Figure 4.8: Sight distance on crest curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25 Figure 4.9: Sight distance on a sag curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-28 Figure 4.10: Cross-section elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31 Figure 4.11: Verge area indicating location of boulevard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-46 Figure 4.12: Typical layout of a bus stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-47 Figure 4.13: Bicycle envelope and clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-50 Figure 4.14: Collision rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-54 Figure 4.15: Prediction of utility pole crashes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-54 Figure 4.16: Typical drain profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-58

Chapter 4
ROAD DESIGN ELEMENTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Regardless of the philosophy brought to bear on the design of a road or the classification of the road in the network, the final design comprises a grouping and sizing of different elements. A vertical curve is an element. The development of super elevation is an element. The crosssection is heavily disaggregated, comprising a large group of elements. Geometric design thus comprises:

The horizontal alignment comprises three elements: tangents, circular curves and the transitions between tangents and curves. Tangents (sometimes referred to as "straights") have the properties of bearing (direction or heading) and length. Circular curves also have two properties; radius and deflection (or deviation) angle, these two properties directly leading to a third property of interest, namely curve length. The basic properties of transition curves are shape and length. Design of the horizontal alignment includes selection of the values associated with each of these six properties.

The selection of elements to be incorporated in the design; The sizing of the selected elements, and Linking the elements into a three-dimensional sequence.

The selected, sized and linked elements in combination represent the final design of a road which, when built, must constitute a network link which will satisfactorily match the criteria of safe, convenient and affordable transportation with minimum side effects, simultaneously addressing needs other than those pertaining directly to the movement of people or freight.

4.2.1

General Controls for horizontal alignment

The horizontal alignment should be as directional as possible and consistent with the topography. However, it is equally important in terms of context sensitive design to preserve developed properties and areas of value to the community. Winding alignments composed of short curves and tangents should be avoided if at all possible because they tend to cause erratic operation and a high consequent crash rate. Most design manuals recommend that minimum radii should be avoided wherever possible, suggesting that flat curves (i.e. high values of radius) should be used, retaining the minimum

A road network comprises links and nodes. The intersections and interchanges are the nodes and the roads connecting them the links. Intersections and the elements that constitute them are discussed in Chapter 6, with interchanges being dealt with in Chapter 7.

In this chapter, the various elements involved in link design are discussed.

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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

for the most critical conditions. The concept of consistency of design, on the other hand, suggests that the difference between design speed and operating speed should ideally be held to a maximum of 10 km/h, with a 20 km/h difference still representing tolerable design. This could be construed as a recommendation that minimum curvature represents the ideal, which is wholly at variance with the historic approach to selection of curve radius. What is actually intended however is that the designer should seek to employ the highest possible value of design speed for any given circumstance. For small deflection angles, curves should be sufficiently long to avoid the appearance of a kink. A widely adopted guideline is that, on 5O minor roads, curves should have a minimum length of 150 metres for a deflection angle of metres for every 1O and that this length should be increased by 30 decrease in deflection angle. On major roads and freeways, the minimum curve length in metres should be three times the design speed in km/h. The increase in length for decreasing deflection angle also applies to these roads. In the case of a circular curve without transitions, the length in question is the total length of the arc and, where transitions are applied, the length is that of the circular curve plus half the total length of the transitions. South African practice recommends an upper limit to the length of horizontal curves. Curves to the left generally restrict passing opportunities and, furthermore, dependant on their radius, operation on long curves tends to be erratic. For this reason, it is desirable to restrict the length of superelevated curves to a maximum of 4-2

1 000 metres. If a curve radius is such that the curve either has a normal camber or a crossfall of 2 per cent, the limitation on curve length falls away and the curve can be dealt with as though it were a tangent. Broken-back (also referred to as "flat back") curves are a combination of two curves in the same direction with an intervening short tangent. These should be avoided on the twin grounds of aesthetics and safety. Not only are broken-back curves unsightly but drivers do not always recognize the short intervening tangent and select a path corresponding to the radius of the first curve approached, hence leaving the road on the inside and part way along the tangent. On roads in areas with restrictive topography, such as mountain passes, the designer may have no option but to accept the use of broken-back curves but should, nevertheless, be aware of their undesirability. Where the intervening tangent is longer than 500 metres, the appellation "broken-back" is no longer appropriate. Reverse curves are also a combination of two curves but in opposite directions with an intervening short tangent. These curves are aesthetically pleasant but it is important to note that the intervening tangent must be sufficiently long to accommodate the reversal of superelevation between the two curves. Although compound curves afford flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain and other ground controls, their use should be avoided outside intersection or interchange areas. Once they are on a horizontal curve, drivers expect the radius to remain unaltered hence supporting a

Geometric Design Guide

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

constant speed across the length of the curve. A compound curve is thus a violation of driver expectancy and can be expected to have a correspondingly high crash rate.

Obviously this would be of fairly limited duration in terms of the season and the likelihood of a prolonged gradient of this magnitude, whereas the east-west bearing would be a problem all year round and over an extended period of time during the day. The designer should be aware of this problem and, if possible, avoid selecting bearings that reduce visibility. may be considered. If the dazzle problem cannot be avoided, warning signage

4.2.2

Tangents

Two fundamentally different approaches can be adopted in the process of route determination. In a curvilinear approach, the curves are located first and thereafter connected up by tangents. This approach can be adopted with advantage in mountainous or rugged terrain. A typical consequence of this approach is that curves tend to be long and tangents short. Because of the local topography, the approach to route determination most frequently adopted in South Africa is for the tangents to be located first and the curves fitted to these tangents thereafter.

In the second instance, a bearing at right angles to the prevailing wind direction can cause problems for empty trucks with closed load compartments, e.g. pantechnicons, or passenger cars towing caravans. On freight routes or routes with a high incidence of holiday traffic, the designer should seek to avoid this bearing. If not possible, locating the road on the lee of a hill that could then offer shelter from the wind may be an option to be explored in order to offer some relief.

Bearing
Economic considerations dictate that, where other constraints on route location are absent, roads should be as directional as possible. In consequence, tangents may be located on bearings that have an adverse impact on driver comfort and safety. Two conditions require consideration. In the first instance, a combination of gradient, direction of travel and time of day may cause the driver to be dazzled by the sun. The most obvious example is the east-west bearing where the vehicle would be moving towards the rising or setting sun. No direction of travel is completely exempt from this problem. For example, when travelling at midday in mid-winter in a northerly direction up a gradient steeper than about eight per cent, the sun can present a problem. 4-3

Length
The minimum allowable length of tangent is that which accommodates the rollover of superelevation in a reverse curve situation.

It has been found that extremely long tangents, e.g. lengths of twenty kilometres or more, have accident rates similar to those on minimum length tangents, the lowest accident rate occurring in a range of eight to twelve kilometres. This range is recommended for consideration in fixing the maximum length of tangent on any route. This maximum is based on the assumption of a design speed of 120 km/h or more. At

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

lower design speeds, it is necessary to consider maximum lengths considerably shorter than eight to twelve kilometres as discussed below. As a rough rule of thumb (which is adequate for planning purposes) the maximum length of tangent in metres should not exceed ten to twenty times the design speed in kilometres/hour. If the achievable maximum length of tangent across the length of the route is regularly greater than this guideline value, thought should be given to consideration of a higher design speed. Rules of thumb have their limitations and, in this case, application should be limited to design speeds of 100 km/h or less. At a design speed of 120 km/h or higher, a maximum tangent length of 1 200 to 2 400 metres would clearly be meaningless. As an example of the application of the rule of thumb, a design speed of 80 km/h would suggest that the maximum length of tangent should be in the range of 800 to 1 600 metres. In this range, drivers would tend to maintain a fairly constant speed of about 80 km/h. At greater lengths of tangent, drivers would accelerate to some higher speed only to decelerate at the following curve. This oscillation in speed is inherently dangerous as discussed in more detail

constitute poor design so that, at a greater level of precision than the proposed rule of thumb, three possibilities arise. These are:

Case 1 - The length of tangent is less than or equal to the distance, Tmin, required to accelerate from the operat ing peed appropriate to one curve to that appropriate to the next curve;

Case 2 - The length of tangent allows acceleration to a speed higher than that appropriate to the next curve but not as high as the desired speed remote from inhibiting curves, and

Case 3 - The length of tangent, Tmax, allows acceleration up to desired speed. These cases are intended to be applied in areas where curves are to design speeds of 100 km/h or less.

To apply the guideline values of allowable speed variations and differences, it is necessary to estimate the operating speeds on the curves preceding and following a tangent. In the absence of information specific to South African conditions, the international value of V85 given in Equation 4.1 will have to be employed. V85 = 105,31 + 1,62 x 10-5 x B2 - 0,064 x B (4.1) where V85 B and L = = = = = 85th percentile speed (km/h) Bendiness 57 300/R (degrees/km) Deviation angle Total length of curve (metres). The general form for bendiness, B, in the case where the circular curve is bounded by transition curves is B = (Lcl1/2R + Lcr/R +Lcl2/2R) x 180/ x 1000 L 4-4
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements (4.2)

Geometric Design Guide

below. Consistency of design dictates that:

The difference between design speed and 85th percentile speed, and Variations in 85th percentile speeds between successive elements

should be limited as far as possible. Research has indicated that, ideally, these differences and variations should be less than 10 km/h but that an acceptable design still results if they are less than 20 km/h. Differences in excess of 20 km/h

where L

LCl1 + LCr + LCl2

where

C Q G D

= = = = =

average passenger car speed (km/h) flow (veh/h) gradient (per cent) directional split as a decimal fraction number of trucks in the traffic stream as a dec imal fraction

with LCl1 and LCl2 being the lengths of the preceding and succeeding transition curves and LCr the length of the circular curve. The length of tangents is to be compared with the values of Tmin and Tmax that, as suggested, are a function of the speeds achievable on the curves preceding and following these tangents. The values are calculated using an m/s2 PS = acceleration or deceleration rate of 0,85 PT

number of semi trailers in the traffic stream as a decimal fraction.

(determined by car-following techniques and which also corresponds to deceleration without braking) TMIN = V851 - V852 22,03 and TMax = 2(V85Tmax)2-(V851)2-(V852)2 22,03 where V85Tmax =
(4.4)
2 2

In the absence of significant volumes of traffic

(4.3)

and on a level grade, the average speed would, according to this equation, be of the order of 120 km/h, suggesting that the 85th percentile speed estimated by Eq. 4.1 is very conservative. If the tangent length is shorter than TMin the tangent is non-independent and it is only necessary for the operating speeds of the two adjacent curves to be within the difference ranges described above to constitute good or tolerable design. In essence, acceleration to the operating speed of the following curve could take place on this curve itself. Where it is necessary to decelerate to the operating speed of the folbrake in order to achieve the appropriate speed at the start of the curve. It follows that, on a twolane two-way road, tangent lengths shorter than TMin are potentially dangerous. Where the tangent length is just equal to TMax lowing curve, it will be necessary for the driver to

85th percentile speed on long tangent, i.e. V85, (km/h)

V851

85th percentile speed on preceding curve (km/h)

V852

85th percentile speed on following curve (km/h)

A tangent has a bendiness of zero so that V85 for TMax is, according to Eq. 4.1, 105,31 km/h. South African research has derived an expression for average speed as given in Eq. 4.5. C = 143,96 - 10,39 ln Q - 0,04 (G2 5,20) - 18,08 D -33,89 PT 54,15 PS
(4.5)

the vehicle will be able to accelerate from the operating speed of the preceding curve to the desired speed and then immediately decelerate to the operating speed of the following curve. In 4-5

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

this case, the difference between operating speeds on each curve and the desired speed has to be within the allowable range. In the case of a tangent length falling in the range TMin < T < TMax , it will be necessary to calculate the highest operating speed that can be reached by accelerating at a rate of 0,85 m/s2 from the operating speed of the first curve, allowing for a deceleration at the same rate to the operating speed of the second. It is the difference between this maximum operating speed and the speeds on the adjacent curves that is critical. The maximum operating speed on a tangent of this length is calculated as V85 = [11,016(T - TMin) + V8512]0,5 for V851 > V852 (4.6)

ceeding curves. These define, in effect, the relative design domain of horizontal curvature on any given road, i.e. the possible range of values of radius of any curve given, the radius of the preceding curve. The safety of any curve is dictated not only by the external factors described above but also by factors internal to it, namely radius, superelevation, transitions and curve widening. Of these factors, the most significant is radius as research carried out in Washington State shows consistently that crash frequency increases as the curve radius decreases. At present, the best model shows that A = (0,96 L + 0,0245/R - 0,012S) 0,978(3.3 x W - 30) (4.7) where A = crashes/million vehicles entering from both directions L R S = = = curve length (km) curve radius (km) 1, if transition curves have been provided = W = 0, otherwise roadway width (lanes plus shoulders) (m). Using this relationship, the designer would be able to estimate the merits of increasing the radius of a curve. This would presumably be of great benefit in the case where an existing road is to be upgraded or rehabilitated. It is necessary to determine the absolute boundaries of the design domain. The upper bound is obviously the tangent in the sense that it has a radius of infinite length. The lower bound is the 4-6

4.2.3

Curves

Over the years, various theoreticians have proposed a variety of polynomials as the most desirable forms of horizontal curvature, with desirability presumably being determined by the aesthetics of the end resultant and usually from a vantage point not normally available to the driver. Accident history suggests, however, that drivers have enough difficulty in negotiating simple circular curves that have the property of providing a constant rate of change of bearing. It is recommended that anything more complex than circular arcs should be avoided, the most noteworthy exception being the loop ramp on interchanges. In the preceding section, relationships between operating speed and degree of curvature were offered, as were acceptable differences between the operating speeds observed on suc-

Geometric Design Guide

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

minimum radius for the selected design speed and this is a function of the centripetal force necessary to sustain travel along a circular path. This force is developed in part by friction between the vehicle's tyres and the road surface and in part by the superelevation provided on the curve. The Newtonian dynamics of the situation is illustrated in Figure 4.1.

The side friction factor is a function of the condition of the vehicle tyres and the road surface and varies also with speed. For the purposes of design, it is desirable to select a value lower than the limit at which skidding is likely to occur and the international general practice is to select values related to the onset of feelings of discomfort. Canadian practice suggests that the

Figure 4.1: Dynamics of a vehicle on a curve

The relationship between speed, radius, lateral friction and superelevation is expressed by the relationship: e+f where e = = V2/127 R (4.8) where V = vehicle speed (km/h). superelevation( taken as positive when the slope is downward towards the centre of the curve) f V R = = = lateral or side friction factor speed of vehicle (km/h) radius of curvature (m). For any given speed, it is thus only necessary to select the maximum rate of superelevation, able radius of horizontal curvature for that speed. This selection is based on considerations of the design domain as discussed in the following section. In practice, four values of emax are used, being 4, 6, 8, and 10 per cent. The minimum radius of curvature appropriate to This equation is used to determine the minimum radius of curvature that can be traversed at any given speed. design speeds in the range of 40 km/h to 130 km/h for each of these values of emax is given in Table 4.1. emax, in order to determine the minimum allowside friction factor be taken as f = 0,21 - 0,001xV (4.9)

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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

Guidelines are offered in the following section for the selection of emax

as 8 per cent, provided that this value of superelevation is used only between intersections and that the superelevation is sufficiently remote from the intersections for full run-off to be achieved prior to reaching the intersection area.

4.2.4

Superelevation

The selection of the appropriate value of emax is at the discretion of the designer in terms of the design domain concept. The higher values of emax are typically applied to rural areas and the lower values to the urban environment. The spatial constraints in urban areas will very often preclude the development of high values of superelevation. Because of congestion and the application of traffic control devices, the speeds achieved at any point along the road can fluctuate between zero and the posted speed - or even higher depending on the local level of law enforcement. Negotiating a curve with a superelevation of 10 per cent at a crawl speed can present a major problem to the driver. As a general rule, urban superelevations should not exceed 6 per cent although, in the case of an arterial, this could be taken as high 4-8
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

In rural areas, the range of observed speeds is relatively limited and adequate distance to allow for superelevation development and runoff is usually available. Climatic conditions may, however, impose limitations on the maximum value of superelevation that can be applied. Icing of the road surface is not a typical manifestation of the South African climate but has been known to occur in various high-lying parts of the country. Heavy rainfall reduces the available side friction and relatively light rain after a long dry spell also reduces side friction. This applies particularly to areas where the road surface is polluted by rubber and oil spills, as is the case in urban areas and the immediately surrounding rural areas. Where any of these circumstances are likely to occur, a lower value of e mended.
max

Geometric Design Guide

is recom-

A lower value of emax should also be considered in a road where steep gradients occur with any frequency. A superelevation of 10 per cent would present trucks with some difficulties when they are climbing a steep grade at low speeds. As shown in Table 7.3, the combination of a superelevation of 10 per cent and a gradient of 8 per cent has a resultant of 12,8 per cent at approximately 45O to the centreline. Whatever the value selected for e max, this value should be consistently applied on a regional basis. Its selection governs the rate of superelevation applied to all radii above the minimum. Variations in emax result in curves of equal radius having different rates of superelevation. Drivers select their approach speeds to curves on the basis of the radius that they see and not on the degree of superelevation provided. A lack of consistency with regard to superelevation would almost certainly lead to differences in side friction demand with possibly critical consequences. Recommended rates of emax are offered in Table 4.2.

Method 2:

Side friction is first

applied to sustain lateral acceleration down to radii requiring fmax followed by increasing e with reducing radius until e reaches emax. In short, first f and then e are increased in inverse proportion to the radius of curvature;

Method 3:

Effectively the reverse

of Method 2 with first e and then f increased in inverse proportion to the radius of curvature; Method 4: As for Method 3, except that design speed is replaced by average running speed, and Method 5: Superelevation and side friction are in curvilinear relations with the inverse of the radius of curvature, with values between those of Methods 1 and 3.

These methods of distribution are illustrated in Figure 4.2. In terms of the design domain concept, Method 2 has merit in the urban environment. As pointed out earlier, provision of adequate superelevation in an environment abounding in constraints such as closely spaced intersections

Distribution of e and f
There are a number of methods of distributing e and f over a range of curves flatter than the minimum for a given design speed. Five methods are well documented by AASHTO. These are:

and driveways is problematic. It is thus sensible to make as much use as possible of side friction before having to resort to the application of superelevation. It also should be noted that drivers operating at relatively low speeds in an urban environment are prepared to accept higher values of side friction than they would at high speeds on a rural road.

Method 1:

Both

superelevation

and side friction are directly proportional to the inverse of the radius;

4-9
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

Method 5 is recommended for adoption in the case of rural and high-speed urban roads. In practice it represents a compromise between Methods 1 and 4. The tendency for flat to intermediate curves to be overdriven is accommodated by the provision of some superelevation. The superelevation provided sustains nearly all lateral acceleration at running speeds (assumed to be about 80 per cent of design speed) with considerable side friction available for greater speeds. On the other hand, Method 1, which

bution for superelevation over the range of curvature. Tables 4.3, 4.4, 4,5 and 4,6 provide values of e for a range of horizontal radii and values of emax of 4, 6, 8, and 10 per cent respectively.

Superelevation runoff
In the case of a two-lane road, superelevation runoff (or runout) refers to the process of rotat-

Geometric Design Guide

Figure 4.2: Methods of distributing of e and f

avoids the use of maximum superelevation for a substantial part of the range of curve radii, is also desirable. Method 5 has an unsymmetrical parabolic form and represents a practical distri4-10
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

ing the outside lane from zero crossfall to reverse camber (RC) thereafter rotating both lanes to full superelevation. Tangent (or crown) runoff refers to rotation of the outside lane from

zero crossfall to normal camber (NC). Rotation is typically around the centreline of the road although constraints, such as driveway entrances or drainage in the urban environment, may require rotation to be around the inside or outside edge. These latter alternatives result in the distortion of the vertical alignment of the road centreline and a severe slope on the road edge being rotated, with a potentially unaesthetic end result. In the case of dual carriageway cross-sections, rotation is typically around the outer edges of the median island. The designer should be sensitive to the fact that zero crossfall implies a lack of transverse

drainage resulting in the possibility of storm water ponding on the road surface. A further cause of ponding could be where the centreline gradient is positive and equal to the relative gradient. In this case, the inner edge of the road would have zero gradient over the entire length of the superelevation runoff. Ponding is extremely dangerous for two reasons. The more obvious danger is that it can cause a vehicle to hydroplane, causing a total loss of traction and steering ability. If the front wheels are pointing in any direction other than straight ahead when the vehicle moves out of the ponded water, the sudden availability of fric-

Note:

NC denotes Normal Camber, i.e. 2 per cent fall from the centreline to either edge of the travRC denotes Reverse Camber, i.e. 2 per cent crossfall from the outer edge of the travelled way

elled way to the inner edge 4-11

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

tion can lead to a sharp swerve and subsequent loss of control. The other possibility is that of one front wheel striking the water before the other, in which case the unbalanced drag could also lead to the vehicle swerving out of control. The designer should therefore endeavour to avoid the combination of zero longitudinal gradient and zero crossfall. A pond depth of 15 mm is sufficient to cause hydroplaning. In the case of worn tyres, a lesser depth will suffice.

which suggests that there is a maximum acceptable difference between the gradients of the axis of rotation and the pavement edge. Experience indicates that relative gradients of 0,8 and 0,35 per cent provide acceptable runoff lengths for design speeds of 20 km/h and 130 km/h respectively. Interpolation between these values provides the relative gradients shown in Table 4.7. Many States of the United States have opted for

The length of the superelevation runoff section is selected purely on the basis of appearance,

a standard relative gradient of 1:200, whereas Canada has elected to use a relative gradient of

Geometric Design Guide

Note: way

NC denotes Normal Camber, i.e. 2 per cent fall from the centreline to either edge of the travelled RC denotes Reverse Camber, i.e. 2 per cent crossfall from the outer edge of the travelled way

to the inner edge 4-12

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Note:

NC denotes Normal Camber, i.e. 2 per cent fall from the centreline to either edge of the travRC denotes Reverse Camber, i.e. 2 per cent crossfall from the outer edge of the travelled way

elled way to the inner edge 4-13

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

1:400 in the calculation of the length of the superelevation runoff. Other widely used options include adopting the distance travelled in four seconds and previous editions of the AASHTO policy suggested the distance travelled in 2 seconds. As can be seen, there is a large degree of arbitrariness attaching to determination of the length of superelevation runoff. The designer can thus vary the relative gradient to accommodate other elements of the design, such as the distance between successive curves or the distance to the following intersection. It is, however, suggested that the relative gradients offered in Table 4.7 should provide a pleasing appearance and the designer should at least attempt to achieve relative gradients of a similar magnitude.

If the relative gradient approach to determination of runoff length is adopted, this length is calculated as 4.10 where L w n ed b = = = = = = length of supereleva tion runoff (m) width of one traffic lane, (m) number of lanes rotated superelevation rate (per cent) relative gradient, (per cent) adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated

Geometric Design Guide

Adjustment factor for number of lanes

The gradient of the tangent runout is simply a continuation of whatever relative gradient was adopted for the superelevation runoff. If the above relationship is applied to cross-sections wider than two lanes, the length of the

4-14
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

superelevation runoff could double or treble and there may simply not be enough space to allow for these lengths. On a purely empirical basis, it is recommended that the calculated lengths be adjusted downwards by the lane adjustment factors offered in Table 4.8.

portion of the runoff located on the tangent and the balance on the curve. Experience has shown that having about 2/3 of the runoff on the tangent produces the best result in terms of limiting lateral acceleration. this ratio is tolerable. If circumstances demand, deviation by about 10 per cent from

Location of superelevation runoff

The two extremes of runoff location are: The superelevation runoff and tangent runout are illustrated in Figure 4.3. Figures 4.4 and 4.5 show possible treatments for superelevation runoff on reverse and broken back curves. In these cases, the superelevation runoff terminates at a crossfall of two per cent rather than the more customary zero camber on the outside lane.

Full superelevation attained at the beginning of the curve (BC), and Only tangent runout attained at the BC.

Both alternatives result in high values of lateral acceleration and are thus considered undesirable. The preferred option would be to have a

Figure 4.3: Attainment of superelevation

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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

Figure 4.4: Superelevation runoff on reverse curves

Geometric Design Guide

Figure 4.5: Superelevation runoff on broken-back curves

4-16
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

If the circular curve is preceded by a transition curve, all of the superelevation runoff should be located on the transition curve.

cubic parabola achieves a maximum value and then flattens out again and is thus not a true spiral and the lemniscate requires an unacceptable length of arc to achieve the desired radius. The clothoid, which has the relationship whereby the radius, R, at any point on the spiral varies with the reciprocal of the distance, L, from the start of the spiral, is thus the preferred option. Expressed mathematically, this relationship is R = A2/L (4.11) where A is a constant called the spiral parameter and has units of length.

4.2.5

Transition curves

Any vehicle entering a circular curve does so by following a spiral path. For most curves, this transition can be accommodated within the limits of normal lane width. At minimum radii for the design speed, longer transition paths are followed and, if these occur on narrow lanes, the shift in lateral position may even lead to encroachment on adjacent lanes. Under these circumstances, it may be convenient to shape the horizontal alignment such that it more accurately reflects the path actually followed by a vehicle entering the circular curve. Various curves can be used to provide a transition from the tangent to the circular curve. Whatever form is used, it should satisfy the conditions that:

The length of a transition curve may be based on one of three criteria. These are:

Rate of change of centripetal acceleration, essentially a comfort factor, varying between 0,4 m/s3 and 1,3 m/s3; Relative slope as proposed in Table 4.3; or Aesthetics.

Since relative slope is applied to curves where transitions are not provided, its use also for transitioned curves would be a sensible point of departure. For the various design speeds, a radius corresponding to a specified centripetal acceleration can be calculated. These radii are listed in Table 4.9 for an acceleration of 1,3 curves to larger radii where the centripetal acceleration would be lower. m/s2. There is little point in applying transition

It is tangential to the straight; Its curvature should be zero (i.e. infinite radius) on the straight; The curvature should increase (i.e. radius decrease) along the transition; Its length should be such that, at its junction with the circular curve, the full super elevation has been attained; It should join the circular arc tangentially, and The radius at the end of the transition should be the same as that of the circular curve.

Setting out of transitions

Application of the spiral has the effect that the Candidate curves are the lemniscate, the cubic parabola (also known as Froude's spiral), and the clothoid (also known as Euler's spiral). The circular curve has to be offset towards its centre. It is thus located between new tangents that are parallel to the original tangents but shifted from

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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

them by an amount, s, known as the shift. The value of the shift is given by

4.2.6

Lane widening

When vehicles negotiate a horizontal curve, the s where L R = = = L2/2R (4.12) rear wheels track inside the front wheels. In the case of semi trailers with multiple axles and selected length of tran sition curve (m) radius of circular curve (m) pivot points, this off-tracking is particularly marked. The track width of a turning vehicle, also known as the swept path width, is the sum of the track width on tangent and the extent of The starting point of the spiral is located at a distance, T, from the Point of Intersection (PI) of the original tangents with T = (R+s) tan /2 + L/2 (4.13) where = deviation angle of the circular curve where U u The most convenient way to set out the spiral is by means of deflection angles and chords and the deflection angle for any chord length, l, is given as a = l2/6RL x 57,246 (4.14) 4-18
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

off-tracking, with the off-tracking being a function of the radius of the turn, the number and location of pivot points and the length of the wheelbase between axles. The track width is calculated as U = u + R - (R2 - Li2)0,5 (4.15) = = = = track width on curve (m) track width on tangent (m) radius of turn (m) wheel base of design vehicle between successive axles and pivot points (m).

Geometric Design Guide

R Li

Strictly speaking, the radius, R, should be the radius of the path of the midpoint of the front axle. For ease of calculation, however, the radius assumed is that of the road centreline.

FA

[R2 + A(2L + A)]0,5 - R (4.16)

where FA R A L

= = = =

width of front overhang (m) radius of curve (m) front overhang (m) wheel base of single unit or tractor (m)

The front overhang is the distance from the front axle of the vehicle to the furthest projection of the vehicle body in front of the front axle. In the case of the turning vehicle, the width of the front overhang is defined as the radial distance between the path followed by the outer front edge of the vehicle and the tyre path of the outer front wheel. The width of the front overhang is calculated as

The width of the rear overhang is the radial distance between the outside edge of the inner rearmost tyre and the inside edge of the vehicle body. In the case of a passenger car this dis-

Figure 4.6: Typical turning path

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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

tance is typically less than 0,15 m. The width of truck bodies is usually the same as the wheelbase width so that the width of the rear overhang is zero. A typical turning path is illustrated in Figure 4.6. Turning paths for numerous vehicles are provided in the 2000 edition of the AASHTO Policy on geometric design of highways and streets and the designer is directed towards Exhibits 2-3 to 2-23 of that document. It is necessary to provide an allowance, C, for lateral clearance between the edge of the roadway and the nearest wheel path, and for the body clearance between passing vehicles. Typical values of C are:

WC

N (U + C) + FA(N - 1) + Z
(4.18)

where N defined.

number of lanes

and the other variables are as previously

As a general rule, values of curve widening, being (WC - W) where W is the width of the travelled way on tangent sections, that are less than 0,6 m are disregarded. Lane widening is thus generally not applied to curves with a radius greater than 300 metres, regardless of the design speed or the lane width.

Widening should transition gradually on the approaches to the curve so that the full additional width is available at the start of the curve. Although a long transition is desirable to ensure that the whole of the travelled way is fully usable, this results in narrow pavement slivers that are difficult, and correspondingly expensive, to construct. In practice, curve widening is thus applied over no more than the length of the super elevation runoff preceding the curve. For ease of construction, the widening is normally applied only on one side of the road. This is usually on the inside of the curve to match the tendency for drivers to cut the inside edge of the travelled way.

0,60 m for a travelled way width of 6,0 m; 0,75m for a travelled way width of 6,6 m, and 0,90 m for a travelled way width of 7,4 m.

A further allowance, Z, is provided to accommodate the difficulty of manoeuvring on a curve and the variation in driver operation. This additional width is an empirical value that varies with the speed of traffic and the radius of the curve. It is expressed as Z where V = = 0,1(V/R0,5)

Geometric Design Guide

(4.17)

In terms of usefulness and aesthetics, a tangent design speed of the road (km/h) transition edge should be avoided. A smooth graceful curve is the preferred option and can be adequately achieved by staking a curved By combining Eqs 4.12, 4.13 and 4.14 with the clearance allowances, C and Z, the width of the travelled way can be calculated as transition by eye. Whichever approach is used, the transition ends should avoid an angular break at the pavement edge.

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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Widening is provided to make driving on a curve comparable with that on a tangent. On older roads with narrow cross-sections and low design speeds and hence sharp curves, there was a considerable need for widening on curves. Because of the inconvenience attached to widening the surfacing of a lane, it follows that the required widening may not always have been provided. Where a road has to be rehabilitated and it is not possible to increase the radius of curvature, the designer should consider the need for curve widening. In the case of an alignment where curves in need of widening of the travelled way follow each other in quick succession, the inconvenience associated with the application of curve widening can be avoided by constructing the entire section of road, including the intervening tangents, to the additional width.

constant rate of change of bearing. It thus has a certain academic appeal. The general equation of the parabola is y = ax2 + bx +c, from which it follows that the gradient, dy/dx, at any point along the curve is expressed as 2ax + b and the rate of change of gradient, d2y/dx2, is 2a. This has the meaning of extent of change over a unit distance. Normal usage is to express the rate of change in terms of the distance required to effect a unit change of gradient. This expression is referred to as the Kvalue of the curve and is equal to 1/2a. It follows that the length of a vertical curve can be conveniently expressed as being L = AxK = = (4.19) curve length (m) algebraic difference between the gradients on either side of the curve K = rate of change

where L A

4.3

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Vertical alignment comprises grades (often referred to as tangents) and vertical curves. Grades have the properties of length and gradient, invariably expressed as a percentage, representing the height in metres gained or lost over a horizontal distance of 100 metres. Curves may be either circular or parabolic, with South African practice favouring the latter. The practical difference between the two forms is insignificant in terms of actual roadway levels along the centreline. The parabola has the property of providing a constant rate of change of gradient with distance, which is analogous to the horizontal circular curve, which provides a 4-21
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

4.3.1

General controls for vertical alignment

On rural and high-speed urban roads, a smooth grade line with gradual changes, which are consistent with the class of the road and the character of the terrain, is preferable to an alignment with numerous breaks and short lengths of grades and curvature. A series of successive, relatively sharp crest and sag curves creates a roller coaster or hidden dip profile which is aesthetically unpleasant. Hidden dips can be a safety concern, although, at night, the loom of

Geometric Design Guide

approaching headlights may provide a visual clue about oncoming vehicles. Such profiles occur on relatively straight horizontal alignments where the road profile closely follows a rolling natural ground line. A broken-back grade line, which consists of two vertical curves in the same direction with a short length of intervening tangent, is aesthetically unacceptable, particularly in sags where a full view of the profile is possible. A broken plank grade line, where two long grades are connected by a short sag curve, is equally unacceptable. As a general rule, the length of a curve (in metres) should not be shorter than the design speed in km/h. In the case of freeways, the minimum length should not be less than twice the design speed in km/h and, for preference, should be 400 metres or longer to be in scale with the horizontal curvature. The broken-back and broken-plank curves are the vertical counterparts of the horizontal broken-back curve and the long tangent/small radius curve discussed earlier. The only difference between them is that these forms of vertical alignment are, at least, not dangerous. In theory, vertical curves in opposite directions do not require grades between them. In practice, however, the outcome is visually not successful. The junction between the two curves creates the impression of a sharp step in the alignment, downwards where a sag curve follows a crest and upwards where the crest curve follows the sag. A short length of grade between the two curves will create the impression of continuous, smoothly flowing vertical curvature. The length of the intervening grade in metres need not be more than the design speed in km/h to achieve this effect. 4-22

Where the total change of gradient across a vertical curve is very small, e.g. less than 0,5 per cent, the K-value necessary to achieve the minimum length of curve would be high. Under these circumstances, the vertical curve could be omitted altogether without there being an adverse visual impact.

The vertical alignment design should not be carried out in isolation but should be properly coordinated with the horizontal alignment as discussed later. In addition to the controls imposed on the grade line by the horizontal alignment, the drainage of the road may also have a major impact on the vertical alignment. The top of a crest curve and the bottom of a sag imply a zero gradient and the possibility of ponding on the road surface. Where water flow off the road surface is constrained by kerbs, the gradient should be such that longitudinal flow towards drop inlets or breaks in the kerb line is supported. On lower-speed urban roads, drainage design may often control the grade design. There are, to date, no specific guidelines on consistency of vertical alignment in terms of the relative lengths of grades and values of vertical curvature, as is the case in horizontal alignment. However, where grades and curves are of approximately equal lengths, the general effect of the grade line tends to be pleasing.

Geometric Design Guide

4.3.2

Grades

The convention adopted universally is that a gradient that is rising in the direction of increasing stake value is positive and a descending gradient negative. Gradient and length are interlinked in that steep gradients have an

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

adverse effect on truck speeds and hence on the operating characteristics of the entire traffic stream. This effect is not limited to upgrades because truck operators frequently adopt the rule that speeds on downgrades should not exceed those attainable in the reverse direction. It is desirable that truck speeds should not decrease too markedly. Apart from the operational impact of low truck speeds, it has also been established that there is a strong correlation between crash rates and the speed differential between trucks and passenger cars. American research indicates that crash rates for speed reductions of less than 15 km/h fluctuate between 1 and 5 crashes per million kilometres of travel increasing rapidly to of the order of 21

length of grade" typically taken as being the distance over which a speed reduction of 15 km/h occurs. For a given gradient, lengths less than the critical length result in acceptable operation in the desired range of speeds. Where the desired freedom of operation is to be maintained on grades longer than the critical length, it will be necessary to consider alleviating measures such as local reductions of gradient or the provision of extra lanes. Local research indicates that the 85th percentile mass/power ratio is of the order of 185 kg/kW. The performance of the 85th percentile truck is illustrated in Figure 4.7. The critical lengths of grade for a speed reduction of 15 km/h are derived from these performance curves and are

Figure 4.7: Truck speeds on grades

crashes per million kilometres of travel for a speed reduction of 30 km/h. In the absence of South African research, it is presumed that a similar trend would manifest itself locally, although probably at higher crash rates. For these reasons, reference is made to the "critical 4-23
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

shown in Table 4.10. As suggested earlier, grades longer than those given in Table 4.10 may require some form of alleviating treatment. One such treatment is the provision of climbing lanes. This is discussed in

Geometric Design Guide

Section 4.4.2. Stepping the grade line, i.e. by inserting short sections of flatter gradient, as an alleviating treatment is sometimes offered as relief to heavy trucks at crawl speeds on steep gradients. In practice, this has proved to be ineffective because drivers of heavy trucks simply maintain the crawl speed dictated by the steeper gradient in preference to going through the process of working their way up and down through the gears. Maximum acceptable gradients shown in Table 4.11 are dictated primarily by the topography and the classification of the road. Topography is described as being flat, rolling or mountainous which is somewhat of a circular definition in the sense that what is really being described is not the topography itself but the gradients that can

readily be achieved under the three sets of circumstances. Other factors that should be borne in mind in selecting a maximum gradient include:

traffic operations, where high volumes would suggest a reduction in maximum gradient in order to maintain an accept able Level of Service;

costs, being the whole-life cost of the road and not merely its initial construction cost; property, where relatively flat gradients in a rugged environment may result in high fills or deep cuts necessitating the acquisition of land additional to the normal road reserve width;

Geometric Design Guide

environmental considerations; and adjacent land use in heavily developed or urban areas

4-24
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

It is the designer's responsibility to select a maximum gradient appropriate to the project being designed. The values offered in Table 4.11 are thus only intended to provide an indication of gradients appropriate to the various circumstances. Maximum gradients on freeways should be in the range of three to four per cent regardless of the topography being traversed. Lower order roads have been constructed to gradients as steep as twenty per cent but it is pointed out that compaction with a normal 12/14 tonne roller is virtually impossible on a gradient steeper than about twelve per cent. It is recommended that this be considered the absolute maximum gradient that can be applied to any road. The minimum gradient can, in theory, be level, i.e. zero per cent. This could only be applied to rural roads where storm water would be removed from the road surface by the camber and allowed to spill over the edge of the shoulder. If used on a road that is kerbed, channel grading would have to be employed. Given the limits of accuracy to which kerbs and channels can be constructed, the flattest gradient that

should be considered is of the order of 0,5 per cent. It is recommended that, even without kerbing, gradients should not be less than 0,5 per cent. If the grade is longer than 500 metres, increasing the camber to 2,5 or 3,0 per cent should be considered. The latter value of camber should only be considered in areas subject to heavy rainfall because it may give rise to problems related to steering and maintaining the vehicle's position within its lane. Crest curves are often in cut and, for the minimum value of K for a design speed of 120 km/h, the gradient would be at a value of less than 0,5 per cent for a distance of 55 metres on either side of the crest. Over this distance, channel grading should be applied to the side drains. On sag curves, the distance over which the longitudinal gradient is less than 0,5 per cent is 26 metres on either side of the lowest point at the minimum K-value. Varying the camber between 2 per cent and 3 per cent over a distance of about 80 metres will provide an edge grading at 0,5 per cent in the case where the centreline gradient is flat. As an alternative means of achieving adequate

Figure 4.8: Sight distance on crest curves

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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

drainage, this is more useful in theory than in practice because shaping and compacting the road surface to have this wind in it is extremely difficult. This method is not unknown but is not recommended because of the construction problem.

by the required sight distance is contained within the length of the vertical curve. If the curve length is shorter than the required sight distance, lesser values of K can be employed as indicated by Equation 4.21. (4.21)

4.3.3

Curves
where K = = Distance required for a 1 % change of gradient (m) S Stopping sight distance for selected design speed (m) h1 h2 A = = = Driver eye height (m) Object height (m) Algebraic difference in gradient between the approaching and departing grades (%) The values of K offered in Table 4.12 are based on a curve length longer than the required stopping distance with a driver eye height of 1,05 metres and various heights of object as discussed in Chapter 3. S2 200(h10,5 + h20,5)2 =

As the parameter, K, has been described as the determinant of the shape of the parabolic curve, it follows that some or other value of K can be determined such that it provides adequate sight distance across the length of the curve. Sight distance is measured from the driver eye height, h1, to a specified object height, h2. In the case of a crest curve, the line of sight is taken as being a grazing ray to the road surface, as illustrated in Figure 4.7. Vertical curvature for stopping sight distance The required value of K is derived from the equation of the parabola as indicated in Equation 4.20. K=

(4.20)

Vertical curvature for passing sight distance

Similar calculations can be carried out based on passing sight distance. High values of K result so that, in the situation where the crest of the curve is in cut, the increase in volumes of excavation will be significant. Although the designer should seek to provide as much passing sight distance as possible along the length of the road, it may be useful to shorten the crest curve in order to increase the lengths of the grades on either side rather than to attempt achieving passing sight distance over the crest curve itself. 4-26

where K

Distance required for a 1 % change of gradient (m)

Geometric Design Guide

Stopping sight distance for selected design speed (m)

h1 h2 A

= = =

Driver eye height (m) Object height (m) Algebraic difference in gradient between the approaching and depart ing grades (%).

This relationship applies to the condition where-

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Vertical curvature for barrier sight distance

On undivided roads, barrier sight distance (also referred to as non-striping sight distance) indicates whether no-passing pavement markings are required. Barrier sight distance is shorter than passing sight distance. The designer

specifically in cases where the actual speed differentials between the overtaking and the overtaken vehicles are greater than those applied in the derivation of passing sight distances. K values of crest curvature corresponding to barrier sight distance are offered in Table 4.13.

Sag curves
During the hours of daylight or on well-lit streets at night, sag curves do not present any problems with regard to sight distance. Under these

should attempt to provide barrier sight distance or more wherever possible because passing manoeuvres can often be completed in less than the calculated passing sight distance

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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

circumstances, the value of K is determined by considerations of comfort, specifically the degree of vertical acceleration involved in the change in gradient. The maximum comfortable vertical acceleration is often taken as 0,3 m/s2.

existing pedestrian bridges, a clearance of 5,6 metres may be accepted. This is suggested because pedestrian overpasses are relatively light structures that are unable to absorb severe impact and are more likely to collapse in such an event. The increased vertical clearance reduces the probability of damage to the structure and improves the level of safety for pedestrians using it. The criteria of comfort, sight distance and vertical clearance lead to a minimum desirable length of sag curve. A further criterion is that of drainage, whereby a minimum distance with a gradient of less than 0,5 per cent is desired.

Where the only source of illumination is the vehicle's headlights, the line of sight is replaced by a line commencing at headlight height, taken as being 0,6 metres, and with a divergence angle of 1O relative to the grade line at the position of the vehicle on the curve. This situation is illustrated in Figure 4.9. Although not a frequent occurrence, sight distance on a sag curve may be impaired by a structure passing over the road. Checking the available sight distance at an undercrossing is best made graphically on the profile. In this case, the line of sight is a grazing ray to the soffit of the structure. The selected clearance is thus of interest. Clearances are typically taken as 5,2 metres measured at the lowest point on the soffit. In the case of pedestrian bridges, the clearance is 5,9 metres while, in the case of

Where the stopping sight distance is less than the length of the curve, the value of K is given by Equation 4.22.

____ S2___ 120 + 3,5S

(4.22)

where S

stopping distance (m)

Geometric Design Guide

Figure 4.9: Sight distance on a sag curve

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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

The criterion of comfort, as expressed in Equation 4.23, provides K-values roughly half of those dictated by considerations of stopping sight distance. K where V = = V2 / 395 (4.23)

4.4

CROSS-SECTIONS

The prime determinants of cross-section design are:

design speed (km/h)

The function that the road is intended to serve; The nature and volume of traffic to be accommodated; and The speed of the traffic.

K-values for sag curves, as determined by headlight distance and comfort, for the case where the sight distance is less than the length of the curve, are given in Table 4.14 In both crest and sag curves, K-values dictated by sight distance, where the curve length is greater than the sight distance, can be used throughout. The alternative case, where the sight distance is longer than the curve length, generally offers a lower K-value. K-values appropriate to headlight distance should be used in rural areas and also where street lighting is not provided. Where street lighting is provided, the lower K-values associated with the comfort criterion may be adopted.

Road function refers to a spectrum of needs ranging from accessibility to mobility. Furthermore, a road can be classified on a variety of different bases. A common feature of these considerations is that they largely concern addressing the needs of the occupants of a moving vehicle. These needs may find expression in a desire for ready access to or from a property adjacent to the road, freedom to manoeuvre in a terminal or intersection area or for high-speed long distance travel. High-speed traffic requires more space than relatively slowmoving traffic. Space takes the form of wider lanes, wider shoulders and (possibly) the inclusion of a median in the cross-section.

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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Geometric Design Guide

All these needs have to be met in terms of overall objectives of safety, economy, convenience and minimum side effects. In urban areas, road functions also have to include considerations of living space. People enjoy casual encounters, meeting people on neutral territory, as it were, without the obligation of having to act as host or hostess in the home. The sidewalk caf, the flea market and windowshopping all have to be accommodated within the road reserve. All of these activities impact on the cross-section, which has to be designed accordingly. Traffic does not exclusively comprise motorised vehicles. In developing areas, it may be necessary to make provision for animal-drawn vehicles and, in this context, developing areas are not necessarily exclusively rural. The volume of motorised vehicles will have an impact on the design of the cross-section with regard to the number of lanes that have to be provided. High volumes of moving vehicles will generate a need for special lanes such as for turning, passing, climbing or parking. In urban areas, the presence of large numbers of pedestrians will require adequate provision to

these lanes or, as a further development, to provide cycle paths adjacent to or, for preference, removed from the travelled lanes. Although the horizontal and vertical alignments are disaggregated in the sense that they are a combination of tangents and curves, the crosssection is heavily disaggregated, comprising a multitude of individual elements. These elements are illustrated in Figure 4.10. Design is thus concerned primarily with the selection of elements that have to be incorporated within the cross-section, followed by sizing of these individual elements. In spite of this disaggregated approach to design, there are numerous combinations of elements that occur frequently. Cases in point are:

Two-lane two-way roads; Two-plus-one roads; Four-lane undivided and divided roads, and Four, six (or more) lane freeways.

Each of these composite cross-sections leads to the development of a standard road reserve width that often is enshrined in legislation. In this section, the individual elements rather than the composite cross-section will be discussed.

Geometric Design Guide

be

made

in

terms

of

sidewalk

widths.

Pedestrians are also to be found on rural roads. On rural roads, speeds are high so that crashes involving pedestrians are inevitably fatal. It is thus sensible to make at least modest provision for pedestrians on rural roads, even though their numbers may be low. Cyclists can often be accommodated on the normal travelled lanes but, when the number of cyclists increases, it may be necessary to widen 4-30
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

4.4.1

General controls for cross-sections

Safety is a primary consideration in the design of the cross-section. The safety of the road user refers to all those within the road reserve, whether in vehicles or not. Wide lanes supposedly promote the safety of the occupants of vehicles although current evi-

dence suggests that there is an upper limit beyond which safety is reduced by further increases in lane width. The reverse side of the coin is that wide lanes have a negative impact on the safety of pedestrians attempting to cross the road or street. South Africa has a particularly bad record in terms of pedestrian fatalities, which account for approximately half of the total number of fatalities. In devising safe cross-sections, it is therefore necessary to consider the needs of the entire population of road users and not just those in vehicles. In urban areas, it is necessary to make provision for boarding and alighting public transport passengers, disabled persons and other non-vehicular users of the facility in addition to accommodating pedestrians and cyclists. In these areas, design speed usually plays a lesser role in the design of the cross-section. Land availability is of particular importance in urban areas. Land for the road reserve may be restricted because of the existence of major buildings or high cost of acquisition or some or

other protected land use. During the planning process, it is prudent to attempt to acquire additional road reserve width to allow for improvements to traffic operations, auxiliary lanes, wider pedestrian areas, cycle paths as well as for provision of utilities, streetscaping and maintenance considerations. This should, however, not be taken to the extreme, where large tracts of land are unnecessarily sterilised in anticipation of some or other future eventuality. The location of existing major utilities, which may be either above or below ground, and difficult or costly to relocate is a fairly common design control in urban areas. In particular the location of aboveground utilities in relation to clear zone requirements should be carefully considered. In the discussion that follows, dimensions are essentially discussed in terms of new or "green field" designs. Very often, however, the designer does not have this level of freedom of choice. For example, rehabilitation projects often require the creation of additional lanes without

Figure 4.10: Cross-section elements

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Geometric Design Guide

the funding or space available for additional construction. The choice then is one of either accepting a lane or shoulder width that is narrower than would be desired or foregoing the additional lanes. As discussed below, the preferred cross-section for a two-lane two-way road has a total width of 13,4 metres. This comprises lane widths of 3,7 metres and usable shoulder widths of 2,5 metres plus a 0,5 metre allowance for shoulder rounding. If a cross-section of this width already exists and it is deemed necessary to incorporate a climbing lane without incurring extra construction costs, this can be achieved by accepting a climbing lane width of 3,1 metres with the adjacent shoulder having a width of 1,0 metres. The through lanes have to be reduced to a width of 3,4 metres each and the opposite shoulder to a width of 1,5 metres thus allowing for the shoulder rounding of 0,5 metres on both shoulders.

Similarly, a fourth lane on a 13,4 metre wide cross-section would imply lane widths of 3,1 metres and a zero width of shoulder if the shoulder rounding of 0,5 metres is to be maintained. The traffic volumes necessitating consideration of a four-lane cross-section would render such a configuration of lanes and shoulders highly undesirable.

4.4.2

Basic Lanes

Basic lanes are those that are continuous from one end of the road to the other. The number of lanes to be provided is largely determined by traffic flow and the desired Level of Service that the road is to provide. Reference is thus to the Highway Capacity Manual. The anticipated traffic speed offers an indication of the required width of lane. Lane widths typically used are 3,1 metres, 3,4 metres and 3,7 metres. Research has indicated that the crash rate starts to show a marginal increase above a lane width of 3,6 metres. It is accordingly recommended that widths significantly greater than 3,7 m should not be employed. major routes. Some local authorities use lane widths of 5,4 metres on The intention is apparently to make provision for parking or cycle traffic without demarcating the lanes as such. In practice, passenger cars are very inclined to use these lanes as though they were two unmarked lanes 2,7 metres in width. Although this is a very economical method for providing adequate capacity, the safety record of such cross-sections may be suspect and their use should be discouraged. The narrowest width recommended for consideration (3,1 metres) allows for a clear space of 4-32

Many of the older cross-sections have a total paved width between shoulder breakpoints of 12,4 metres, comprising lanes with a width of 3,4 metres, shoulders with a width of 2,3 metres and 0,5 metres of shoulder rounding on both sides. Three lanes with a width of 3,1 metres each would allow for shoulders that are approximately 1 metre wide and 1 metre of shoulder rounding. It is suggested that the dimensions offered for the three-lane cross-section constitute an irreducible minimum and can be considered as a palliative measure only over a relatively short distance, e.g. to accommodate a climbing lane. Accommodating a third lane on cross-sections narrower than 12,4 metres between shoulder breakpoints should not be essayed.

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300 mm on either side of a vehicle 2,5 metres wide. This width would only be applied to roads where traffic volumes and/or speeds are expected to be low. Where traffic volumes are such that a multi-lane or divided cross-section is required, 3,7 metres would be a logical width to adopt. High speeds would also warrant this width because, on a narrower lane, momentary inattention by a driver could easily cause a vehicle to veer into the path of another. Intermediate volumes and speeds are adequately accommodated by a lane width of 3,4 metres. In the case of a rehabilitation or reconstruction project, it may be necessary to add lanes to the cross-section. The cost of the additional earthworks may however be so prohibitive that the funds required to upgrade the road to full 3,7 metre lanes and 3,0 metre shoulders may simply not be available. The options available to the road authority are then either not to upgrade the road at all or to accept some lesser widths of lanes and/or shoulders. It is suggested that a stepwise approach to the problem, first reducing the available width of shoulder and thereafter considering reductions in lane width, could be adopted by. A 3,4 metre lane is reasonably safe, even at a speed of 120 km/h, but is not a comfortable solution when applied over an extended distance. A reduction in the posted speed limit may be desirable if the lesser lane width is applied over several kilometres. At still lower lane widths, it may be advisable to provide a posted speed limit of 100 km/h even for relatively short sections of road. Travelled lanes have either a camber, being a slope from the centreline towards the outside 4-33

shoulder, or a cross fall, being a slope from one edge of the travelled way to the other edge. These slopes are provided to ensure drainage of the road surface and are typically at two per cent although, in areas where high rainfall intensities are likely to occur, the slope could be increased to as much as three per cent.

4.4.3

Auxiliary lanes

Auxiliary lanes are located immediately adjacent to the basic lanes. They are generally short and are provided only to accommodate some or other special circumstance. Auxiliary lanes are often used at intersections. They can be turning lanes, either to the left or to the right, or through lanes. The turning lanes are principally intended to remove slower vehicles, or stopped vehicles waiting for a gap in opposing traffic, from the through traffic stream hence increasing the capacity of the through lanes. Through auxiliary lanes are often employed at signalised intersections to match the interrupted flow through the intersection area with the continuous flow on the approach lanes. The application and design of these lanes are discussed in depth in Chapter 6. Auxiliary lanes are also employed at interchanges. These are through lanes and are intended to achieve lane balance where turning volumes are sufficient to warrant multi-lane onand off-ramps. They may also be used between closely spaced interchanges to support weaving, principally replacing a merge-diverge with a Type A weave. Auxiliary lanes at interchanges are discussed in Chapter 7. Climbing lanes and passing lanes are auxiliary lanes employed on network links, i.e. other than

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Geometric Design Guide

at intersections and interchanges.

Climbing

last-second manoeuvres occur. In the case of merging, such manoeuvres can be extremely hazardous. Reference should be made to the SADC Road and Traffic Signs Manual for the recommended signage and road markings. The lane drop should not be located so far from the end of the need for the auxiliary lane that drivers accept the increase in number of lanes and do not expect the reduction. Furthermore, the location should not be such that the lane drop is effectively concealed from the driver. Concealment can arise from location immediately beyond a crest curve. An "architectural" approach which locates the lane drop on a horizontal curve and selects curve radii that result in a smooth transition from two lanes to one across the length of the curve is a particularly subtle form of concealment that should be avoided at all costs. To simplify the driving task, the lane drop should be highly visible to approaching traffic and drivers should not be subjected to successive decision points too quickly implying that lane drops should be removed from other decision points. It is possible that the shoulder adjacent to an auxiliary lane could be very narrow. However, for emergency use it is recommended that a three metre wide surfaced shoulder be provided along and extending downstream of the taper for a distance equal to the stopping sight distance for the design speed of the road. Climbing lanes Four types of warrants for climbing lanes are in

lanes are often referred to as truck lanes, crawler lanes, overtaking lanes or passing lanes. The function of climbing lanes is, however, very different from that of passing lanes. Climbing lanes remove slower vehicles from the traffic stream and have the effect of reducing the number of passenger car equivalents (PCE's) in the stream. If the reduction is sufficient, the Level of Service (LOS) on the grade will match that on the preceding and succeeding grades. Passing lanes also remove slower traffic from the stream but, in this case, the objective is platoon dispersal, thus supporting an increase in the capacity of the road. In short, the climbing lane seeks to match the LOS on a steep grade to that on the preceding and following flatter grades, whereas the passing lane improves the capacity of the road as a whole. The ultimate demonstration of the latter circumstance is the four-lane road, which could be described as a two-lane road with continuous passing lanes in both directions.

From a safety point of view, it is important that drivers are made aware of the start and, more particularly, the end of an auxiliary lane. The basic driver information requirements in the latter case are:

Geometric Design Guide

Indication of the presence of a lane drop; Indication of the location of the lane drop; and Indication of the appropriate action to be undertaken.

It has been observed that, without adequate signposting and road markings indicating the presence of a lane drop to drivers, erratic and 4-34

use. These are:

Reduction of truck speed through a given amount or to a specified speed;

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements

Reduction in truck speed in association with a specified volume of traffic; Reduction in LOS through one or more levels, and Economic analysis.

before the climbing lane is warranted.

The

speed reduction applied is 20 km/h from an initial 80 km/h. The volume warrant is given in Table 4.15 below.

The first three focus on the performance of trucks and infer some or other impact on passenger vehicles. The fourth directly quantifies the effect of slow moving vehicles (which need not necessarily be exclusively truck traffic) on the traffic stream in terms of delay over the design life of the climbing lane and compares the benefit of the removal of delay with the cost of providing and maintaining the climbing lane. Speed reductions adopted internationally vary in the range of 15 km/h to 25 km/h and are usually intended to be applied to a single grade. The most widely occurring value of speed reduction is 15 km/h, based on considerations of safety. The Australian approach bases the need for climbing lanes on examination of a considerable length of road. The justification for climbing lanes is based on traffic volume, percentage of trucks and the availability of passing opportunities along the road. Speed reduction is to 40 km/h and not by 40 km/h.

Truck speed reductions without reference to traffic volumes have merits in terms of safety. Their principal benefit lies in reduction in the speed differential in the through lane, thereby reducing the probability of the occurrence of a crash. It is, however, theoretically possible that a climbing lane would be considered warranted merely because it would lead to the required truck speed reduction even if total traffic volumes were very low with virtually no trucks in the traffic stream. The addition of a volume warrant increases the likelihood of a reasonable economic return on the provision of a climbing lane. It is conceded that performance-based warrants such as those described above are not intended to be - or are ever likely to be - fully economic.

Level of Service is a descriptor of operational characteristics in a traffic stream. An important feature is that it is purely a representation of the driver's perception of the traffic environment and

South African practice, as described in TRH17, uses a combination of the speed and traffic volume as a warrant, requiring both to be met 4-35

is not concerned with the cost of modifying that environment. The warrants suggested by the Highway Capacity Manual are:

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Geometric Design Guide

A reduction of two or more Levels of Service in moving from the approach segment to the grade, or Level of Service E existing on the grade.

climbing lanes are variously referred to as passing bays, turnouts or partial climbing lanes and are typically 100 to 200 metres long. Because vehicles entering the turnout do so at crawl speeds, the tapers can be very short, e.g. twenty to thirty metres long, corresponding to taper rates of 1:6 to 1:10 in the case of 3,1 metre wide lanes. Climbing lanes usually have the same width as the adjacent basic lane. In very broken terrain, a reduction in width to as little as 3,1 metres can be considered because of the low speeds of vehicles in the climbing lane. On the same grounds, the shoulder width may also be

The Highway Capacity Manual warrant is severe and does not, in any event, match the speed reduction warrant. The provision of a climbing lane at a specific site is thus dependent on the type of warrant selected. It is accordingly suggested that, if a designer wishes to apply this warrant, the reduction considered should be of one or more Levels of Service, and not two or more. In view of the economic restraints on new construction, a compromise between convenience and cost effectiveness is required. The compromise proposed is that, while delay - seen as a major criterion of Level of Service - is employed in determination of the need for provision of a climbing lane, the delay considered would not be that suffered by the individual vehicle but rather by the entire traffic stream. Commercially available software calculates the value of the time saved during the design life of the climbing lane and relates this to input from the designer in respect of construction and maintenance costs of the lane. In mountainous terrain, where trucks are reduced to crawl speeds over extended distances and relatively few opportunities for overtaking exist, the cost of construction of climbing lanes may be prohibitive. Under these circumstances, an alternative solution to the operational problem may be to construct short lengths of climbing lane as opposed to a continuous lane over the length of the grade. These short 4-36

reduced but to not less than 1,5 metres. If the shoulders elsewhere on the road are three metres wide, the additional construction width required to accommodate the climbing lane and reduced shoulder is thus only 1,6 metres. While the decision whether or not to provide the climbing lane could be based on the economics of the matter, the location of its terminals is dependent purely on safety based on the operational characteristics of truck traffic. The warrant for the provision of climbing lanes in terms of truck speed reduction is set at 20 km/h as described previously. It is suggested, as a safety measure to allow for variation in the hill climbing capabilities of individual trucks, that, having established that a climbing lane is warranted, a speed reduction of 15 km/h be used to determine the location of the climbing lane terminals. Table 4.10 shows critical lengths of grade in terms of a truck speed reduction of 15 km/h for various gradients. It is recommended that the full width of the climbing lane be provided at or before the end of the critical length, with this

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length being measured on the preceding sag curve from a point halfway between the Vertical Point of Intersection (VPI) and the end of the vertical curve (EVC). The full width of the climbing lane should be maintained until the point is reached where truck speed has once again increased to be 15 km/h less than the normal speed on a level grade. The length of the entrance taper should be such that a vehicle can negotiate the reverse curve path with the benefit of a 2 per cent crossfall on the first curve followed by a negative superelevation of 2 per cent on the second curve with a short intervening tangent to allow for the reversal of curvature. Ideally, it should not be necessary for the vehicle path to encroach on the shoulder. These conditions can be met by a taper which is about 100 metres long, corresponding to a taper rate of 1 : 27. This is approximately half the taper rate applied to interchange off-ramps, which is appropriate as, in this case, the taper addresses a reverse path and not a single change of direction. As stated above, the exit terminal of the climbing lane should be the point at which trucks have accelerated back to a speed that is, at most, 15 km/h slower than the truck operating speeds on the basic lanes. If there is a barrier line at this point, the lane should be extended to the point at which the barrier line ends. The reason for this is that a vehicle entering the basic lane may inadvertently force an overtaking vehicle into the opposing lane. This is a potentially dangerous situation and the designer must ensure that there is sufficient sight distance to support appropriate decisions by the drivers involved. 4-37

The terminal may take one of two possible forms. One option is to provide a right-to-left taper merging the basic lane with the climbing lane, followed by a left-to-right taper back to the two-lane cross-section. The motivation for this layout is that faster-moving vehicles find it easy to merge with slower-moving traffic. This is its only advantage. Should a vehicle not manage to complete the merge before the end of the right-to-left taper, its only refuge is the painted island, thereafter being confronted by an opposing lane situation. Furthermore, in this layout, the basic lane terminates at the end of the climbing lane with the climbing lane thereafter becoming the basic lane. This is a contradiction of the fundamental definitions of the basic and auxiliary lanes. This option is not recommended for two-lane roads, although it could possibly be used on multilane or divided cross-sections. The alternative is to provide a simple taper, dropping the climbing lane after it has served its purpose. A vehicle that cannot complete the merging manoeuvre at the end of the climbing lane has the shoulder as an escape route. This is a safer option than that described above. As described with regard to the entrance taper, a vehicle exiting from the climbing lane could negotiate a taper that is 100 metres in length. However, a flatter taper would allow time to find a gap in the opposing traffic. A taper rate of 1:50 is suggested for on-ramps at interchanges where vehicles are required to negotiate only a single change of direction. The reverse curve path followed in exiting from an auxiliary lane may require a still flatter taper rate for which reason a rate of the order of 1:70 is suggested, leading to a taper that is approximately 200 metres in length.

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Geometric Design Guide

Passing lanes
The procedure followed in the design of the alignment of a road should seek, in the first instance, to provide the maximum possible passing opportunity. Thereafter, the need for climbing lanes should be evaluated and decisions taken on where climbing lanes are to be provided and what the lengths of these climbing lanes should be. At this stage, it is possible to relate the total passing opportunity to the overall length of the road.

there is an absence of passing opportunities. They are aimed at platoon dispersion and local research has demonstrated that a passing lane length of about one kilometre is adequate for this purpose. Numerous short passing lanes are preferable to few long passing lanes and it is recommended that they be located at two, four and eight kilometre spacings. Where traffic volumes are low, the longest spacing can be used and, as traffic volumes increase, the intervening lanes can be added in a logical manner. With one-kilometre long passing lanes provided

The analysis of two-lane roads as described in the Highway Capacity Manual is based on two criteria, being percentage time spent following and average travel speed. Both of these are adversely influenced by inadequate passing opportunities. For example, a road with sixty per cent passing opportunity demonstrates a 19 per cent increase in time spent following by comparison with a road with similar traffic volumes and unlimited passing opportunities. This assumes a 50/50 directional split. The increase in time spent following is greater with unbalanced flows. If the flow is as low as 800 vehicles per hour, passing opportunities limited to 60 per cent result in a reduction of the order of three per cent in average speeds by comparison

at two-kilometre intervals, the next level of upgrading would be a Two + One cross-section. In this case, the road is effectively provided with a three-lane cross-section from end to end with the centre lane being alternately allocated to each of the opposing directions of flow. In keeping with the spacings discussed above, the switch in the direction of flow in the centre lane should be at about two-kilometre intervals. Unlike climbing lanes, passing lanes tend to operate at the speeds prevailing on the rest of the road. Reductions in lane width are thus not recommended and passing lanes should have the same width as the basic lanes. As recommended for climbing lanes, the entrance taper to a passing lane could be 100 metres in length and the length of the exit taper double this to allow adequate time for merging vehicles to find a gap in the through flow. Seeing that both the entrance and the exit tapers signal a change in operating conditions on the road, it is recommended that decision sight distance should be available at these points. 4-38

Geometric Design Guide

with the speeds on roads with unlimited passing opportunity. It is accordingly necessary for the designer to carry out an analysis based on the Highway Capacity Manual to establish whether or not additional passing opportunities should be provided in order to maintain the desired Level of Service.

Passing lanes are normally provided in areas where construction costs are low and where

Chapter 4: Road Design Elements