10 Complex Numbers
When we try to solve quadratic equations such as
we find that they do not have solutions which are real numbers. In order to solve such equations, we introduce a quantity i which has the property that:
We then define complex numbers by:
Thus 2+6i is an example of a complex number. We call a the real part of z ,
and b is called the imaginary part of z and we write
It is now possible to solve quadratic equations such as the ones above.
Example 1
10.1 Powers of i
10.2 Argand Diagrams
We can associate the complex number z=x+iy with the point in the plane with coordinates (x,y) . Conversely, any point in the plane corresponds to a complex number.
So we can think of the x -axis as the real axis, and the y -axis as the imaginary axis. A diagram of the complex plane thought of in this way is called an Argand diagram.
10.3 Modulus and Argument of a Complex Number
Instead of using x and y as coordinates, we can use polar coordinates r and , where:
Note: we must choose so that it is in the correct quadrant as given by the signs of x and y . This means we may have to add or subtract to the value given by taking the pricipal value of (see examples later). In polar coordinates we may write:
The number r is called the modulus of z and we write the modulus of z as |z| .
The number is called the argument of z , which we write as not unique but it is only defined up to multiples of .
. Note that the argument is
Example
We define the principal value of the argument to be the value of in the range:
The principal value of is the value of in the range
such that:
10.4 Complex Conjugates
If z = x+ iy , then we define the complex conjugate by:
Note: the complex conjugate of z is often written as z* . In the Argand diagram, taking the complex conjugate is just a reflection in the real axis.
which agrees with the values of
and
obtained above.
10.5 Addition and Multiplication of complex numbers
Addition
Note that:
Addition in the Argand Diagram
10.6 Multiplication of Complex Numbers
To find the rule for the multiplication of complex numbers we assume that complex numbers obey the ordinary rules of arithmetic. Hence:
We in fact take the final line as our definition of the product of complex numbers (and the previous lines as motivation). However with this definition we can now verify that complex numbers do satisfy the usual rules of arithmetic, so that:
It is often useful to use the fact that
. Hence:
The rule for multiplication of complex numbers is simpler if we write the complex number in polar form.
Then:
Hence
10.7 Division of Complex Numbers
In Cartesian form
In polar form:
Hence
Examples of multiplication and division in Cartesian form:
Then:
10.8 Complex Exponentials and Trigonometric Functions
Let z be a complex number. We define:
Now let
, where
, then:
(1) is the Taylor series for
and (2) is the Taylor series for
. Hence:
As we can write any complex number in polar form as:
we see that any complex number can be written as:
or, since the argument is not unique,
From (A), replacing by
we get
Adding (A) and (B) and dividing by 2 gives:
Subtracting (B) from (A) and dividing by 2i gives
10.9 Further examples of complex numbers in polar form
Example 1.
Let z1 = 3 + 3i , and
.Calculate z1z2 in both Cartesian and polar form.
Example 2.
Find the possible values of
, where
10.10 Multiplying Complex Numbers in Exponential Form
If and then,
So that we multiply the moduli and add the arguments. These results can be used to prove trigonometric identities. For example
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
10.11 Dividing complex numbers in exponential form
Thus we divide the moduli and subtract the arguments. Taking z1=1 and z2=z gives
So that
10.12 Calculating Powers
If we write a complex number in exponential form, , and take the n -th power we get
Note: this result remains true for non-integer values of n , although some care is needed (see details later in section on solving complex equations). For example,
10.13 de Moivre's Theorem
If we take the special case , then ,and
so that
This result is known as de Moivre's theorem.
10.14 Applications of de Moivre's Theorem
Example 1 Express and in powers of and .
We can use these results to find
Similar calculations can be carried out for any other power. Example 2
To go in the other direction and write angles, we write
and
in terms of sines and cosines of multiple
Example 1
Example 2 We can perform a similar calculation for
Example 3
10.15 Solving Equations
Example 1
We write the possible values of z as zk for
If n=3 ,
If n=4 ,
There are 3 distinct roots for z3 = 1 , 4 distinct roots for z4=1 and in general,
Note: A general complex polynomial of degree n has n complex roots (counting the roots according to their multiplicity). This result is known as the Fundamental theorem of Algebra. Example 2
This has four distinct roots.
James Vickers [Link]