Institute of Business & Technology

Basic Electronics

Faculty of Computer Science & Information Technology Institute of Business and Technology (IBT),Korangi Creek, Karachi.
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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS 1. To 2. To 3. To 4. To 5. To diodes. 6. To 7. To 8. To 9. To 10. To 11. To 12. To study SEMI CONDUCTOR diode characteristics. find ZENER DIODE characteristics. demonstrate zener diode as voltage regulator. demonstrate half wave rectifier. demonstrate full wave rectifier with two semi-conductor demonstrate bridge as a full wave rectifier. display smooth Full wave output rectification. demonstrate CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER. observe Wave output from Clamper circuit. display Wave form as the output of clipper circuits demonstrate TRANSISTOR DC ANALYSIS demonstrate TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

INDEX

S.N O.

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

PERFORMED DATE

SUBMITTED DATE

PAGE NO.

REMARKS

__________________________ SIGNATURE OF FACULTY

EXPERIMENT # 1

TO STUDY SEMI CONDUCTOR DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Objective: To study the characteristics of a diode curve Equipment and materials:DC power supply Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Diodes Silicon D1N4002, Germanium D1N4148 Resistors: 1k, 1M Graph paper, rectangular coordinates Basic concepts:A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that blocks current in one direction while letting current flow in another [Link] a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the Ntype material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, 0.7 volts for Silicon and 0.3 volts for Germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow as the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this "knee" voltage and high current flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer.

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode. The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material. A Reverse Biased Junction showing the Increase in the Depletion Layer.

A Reverse Biased Junction showing the Increase in the Depletion Layer.

Procedure: 1. Using the DMM perform the diode test for both forward and reverse bias. If successful continue to step 2 other wise replace the diode 2. Connect the circuit of fig 1 .For each source voltage listed in table 1, measure and record the diode current Id
0-12V DC

1K D1

Fig 1 Diode in Forward Bias

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.75

Id Table 1 Silicon Diode Measured Values

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.75

Id Table 2 Germanium Diode Measured Values [Link] the source voltage in fig 1 .Set source voltage to 20V of table 2, measured value of Vd and Id
20V DC

1M D1

Fig 2 Diode in Reverse Bias

Vd Measured = Is Measured = Conclusion:-

___________________ ___________________

EXPERIMENT # 2 TO FIND ZENER DIODE CHARACTERESTICS

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Objective: To study the characteristics of a zener diode. Equipment and materials:Bread board DC power supply adjustable Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Zener Diode 1N753 Resistors: 180 Basic concepts:A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. The device is specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of 3.2 V if reverse bias voltage applied across it is more than its Zener voltage. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications. Ideally a zener diode is equivalent to a DC source when operating in the breakdown region. Procedure:0-12V DC

180 D1

Fig 1 Circuit diagram

1. Connect the circuit of fig [Link] and record the output voltage for each input voltage of table 1 2. Calculate Zener current for each entry in table 1 3. Calculate Zener resistance for each entry table 1

E (V)

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VZ ( V ) VR ( V ) IZ = VR / R R ( mA )

meas

= V z / IZ Table 1 Zener diode characteristics

Conclusion:-

EXPERIMENT # 3 TO DEMONSTRATE ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Objective: To study the voltage regulation in Zener diode regulation circuit.

Equipment and materials:Bread board DC power supply adjustable Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Zener Diode 1N753 Resistors: R,RL 1k RL 3.3k Basic concepts:A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. The device is specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of 3.2 V if reverse bias voltage applied across it is more than its Zener voltage. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications. Ideally a zener diode is equivalent to a DC source when operating in the breakdown region. Procedure:1. Construct the circuit of Fig. 2. Record the measured value of each resistor.
+
R

V R
= 1 k

+ L = 1V kL -

+ Z e n e rZ V R S u p pE l = y 1 5 V -

Fig.2 Circuit diagram

1.

R (measured) = ____________, RL (measured) = ___________

Measure the value of VL and VR. Using the measured values, calculate the value for current across R, IR, current across RL, IL, and current across the zener diode, IZ. 3. Change RL to 3.3 k and repeat Step 2. 4. Comment on the results obtained in Steps 2 and 3. Observations:2. 10

2.

VR (measured) = ___________, VL (measured) = ___________ IR = VR / R = ___________, IZ = IR IL = ___________ IL = VL / RL = ___________,

3.

Change RL to 3.3k; RL (measured) = ___________, VR (measured) = ___________, VL (measured) = ___________ IR = VR / R = ___________, IZ = IR IL = ___________ IL = VL / RL = ___________,

Conclusion:-

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EXPERIMENT # 4

TO DEMONSTRATE HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

Objective:To demonstrate the use of semiconductor diode as a half wave rectifier. Basic Concept :A rectifying circuit converts AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage .When the input AC voltage is positive for the circuit connection, the polarity of the voltage across the diode will cause the diode to conduct, that is the voltage across the diode is + ve to - ve from anode to cathode and in the case of ideal diode, the forward resistance is zero. The positive half cycle of the input signal then appears across the resistor. When the output voltage is negative, the diode is reverse biased, having then infinite resistance and appearing as an open circuit. Since there can be no current flow during the complete time that the voltage at the input causes the diode to be reverse biased, the voltage across the resistor is zero. The resulting output signal across the resistor due to the half cycle of diode conduction and the lack of signal during the other half cycle of diode nonconduction is shown figure 1. Notice that although this signal is not steady DC (it is pulsating), it nevertheless has an average positive value if the sinusoidal voltage from the power line were applied to a DC voltmeter the reading obtained would be zero. With the pulsating DC applied to a DC voltmeter there will be reading representing the average of the applied signal. For the diode connection of figure 1, the diode allows only positive half cycles to appear at the output. Reversing the diode results in only negative half cycles. Equipment and materials:Bread board AC power supply 9V Digital Multimeter (DMM) Diode 1N4007 Resistor 180

Procedure:-

Fig 1
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1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 1

2. Put the oscilloscope probes across the load resistor and observe its output. Measure and record the DC level of the output voltage using the DMM. Resistor

V/div

Boxes

Peak Value (V/div)

Peak a

Time/div

180 Table 1 Resistor

V/div

Boxes

Peak Value (V/div)

Peak a v

Time/div

100 Table 2 3. Measure the ac voltage across the output terminals of the voltage transformer. Vac= _______________
4. Measure peak value Vp and average value Vav of the AC input voltage

Vp = ____________ , Vav = ____________ 5. Measure the dc voltage across the resistor Vdc = ___________________ 6. Reverse the diode of circuit of Fig. 1. Observe the output waveform across the resistor. Measure and record the DC level of the output voltage. 7. Comment on the results obtained from step 6 Conclusion:-

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EXPERIMENT # 5
TO DEMONSTRATE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH TWO SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
Objective: To demonstrate the use of two semiconductor diode as a full wave rectifier. Basic Concept:In a Full-wave rectifier circuit with two diodes used has transformer whose secondary winding is split equally into two and has a common centre tapped connection, (C), see figure1. Now each diode conducts in turn when its Anode terminal is positive with respect to the centre point C as shown below in figure 1. The circuit consists of two Half-wave rectifiers connected to a single load resistance with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A is positive with respect to point B, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows. When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point A, diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the same direction for both circuits. As the output voltage across the resistor R is the sum of the two waveforms, this type of circuit is also known as a "bi-phase" circuit. Equipment and materials:Bread board Center-Tapped Transformer 9V Output Digital Multimeter (DMM) Diode D1, D2 1N4007 Resistor 180

Procedure:-

Fig 1 Full-wave Rectifier Circuit

1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1.

2) Connect one of the probes of the oscilloscope across the load resistor Resistor V/div T/div Boxes Peak Peak av
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Value

180 Table 1 Boxes

Resistor

V/div

T/div

Peak Value

Peak av

100 Table 2 3) Measure the ac voltage across the output terminals of the voltage transformer. Vac= _______________ 4) Measure peak value Vp and average value Vav of the AC input voltage Vp = ____________ , Vav = ____________ 5) Measure the dc voltage across the resistor Vdc = ___________________ Conclusion:-

EXPERIMENT # 6
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TO DEMONSTRATE BRIDGE AS A FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER Objective:To study the use of four diodes in a bridge as a full wave rectifier

Basic Concept:This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a "bridged" configuration to produce the desired output but does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below in figure 1

Fig 1 The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The 4 diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below. The Positive Half-cycle:-

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

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The Negative Half-cycle:-

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier. Equipment and materials:Bread board Power source 9V AC Digital Multimeter (DMM) Diode D1, D2, D3, D4 1N4007 Resistor 180, 1K

Procedure:1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1. 2) Connect one of the probes of the oscilloscope across the load resistor Resistor V/div T/div Boxes Peak Peak av Value 180 Table 1

When 180 resistors is connected V across R= _____________V V across D1= _____________V V across D2= _____________V V across D3= _____________V V across D4= _____________V

Resistor

V/div

T/div

Boxes

Peak Value

Peak av

1K Table 2

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When 1K resistor is connected V across R= _____________V V across D1= _____________V V across D2= _____________V V across D3= _____________V V across D4= _____________V

3) Measure the ac voltage across the output terminals of the voltage transformer. Vac= _______________ 4) Measure peak value Vp and average value Vav of the AC input voltage Vp = ____________ , Vav = ____________ 5) Measure the dc voltage across the resistor Conclusion:-

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EXPERIMENT # 7 To display smooth Full wave output rectification Objective:To study the use of capacitor for a bridge full wave rectifier for output smoothing

Basic Concept:The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth DC output voltage. Two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable a capacitor are its Working Voltage, which must be higher than the no-load output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which determines the amount of ripple that will appear superimposed on top of the DC voltage. This is done using a RESERVOIR capacitor. It is not called this because of its construction but because of its application. Sometimes we have periods of drought and sometimes periods of prolonged rain. April is very showery and occasionally we have cold in Winter. However, when we turn on the shower, the water always comes out at the same steady rate. This is because it has been stored in a reservoir and is released as required. Equipment and materials:Bread board Power source Digital Multimeter Diode D1, D2, D3, D4 Resistor 9V AC (DMM) 1N4007 180, 1K

Capacitor (Electrolytic)

100uf 25V

Procedure: It is the same with the reservoir capacitor. The capacitor is charged up by the pulses. It stores the pulses of voltage and the load is able to use this stored power as if it were a steady supply available from a battery. Looking at the first waveform, the red line indicates the voltage across the capacitor. When the first pulse arrives the capacitor charges up to the peak voltage. When this pulse has ended, the capacitor voltage starts to fall as the load takes energy from the capacitor. However, the voltage falls only slightly before the next pulse arrives

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to

recharge

the

capacitor

to

the

peak

voltage.

Fig # 1: Rectifier output smoothing circuit

The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC ripple value for a given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an equivalent half-wave rectifier. Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the ripple voltage is twice that of the AC supply frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply frequency (50Hz). The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the DC supply voltage by the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding a much improved -filter (pifilter) to the output terminals of the bridge rectifier. This type of low-pass filter consists of two smoothing capacitors, usually of the same value and a choke or inductance across them to introduce a high impedance path to the alternating ripple component. Another more practical and cheaper alternative is to use a 3terminal voltage regulator IC, such as a LM7805. Conclusion:-

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EXPERIMENT # 8

To demonstrate Capacitor input filter

Objective:To study the effect of capacitor input filter

Basic Concept:By connecting the output of a bridge rectifier to a capacitor input filter we can produce a dc load voltage that is approximately constant. The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth DC output voltage. Two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable a capacitor are its Working Voltage, which must be higher than the no-load output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which determines the amount of ripple that will appear superimposed on top of the DC voltage. Equipment and materials:Bread board Power source Digital (DMM) Diode D1, 1N4007 Resistor 9V AC Multimeter D2, D3, D4 180, 1K

Capacitor 100uf 25

(Electrolytic)

Procedure:21

Voltage V 0.45 0.53 0.58 0.63 0.65 0.66 0.68 0.7

Current I

Resistance R

Table 1 : Capacitor parameters in forward bias Table 2 : Capacitor parameters in reverse bias Voltage V Current I Resistance R -1 -5 -10 -15

Conclusion:-

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To observe Wave output from Clamper circuit

Objective:To observe wave forms at the output of clamper circuit

EXPERIMENT # 09

Equipment & Material:AC Power Supply DMM Function Generator Oscilloscope

Diode IN 4007 Capacitor 1uF

Basic Concept:-

Diodes are widely used in clipping and clamping circuits. Clamping circuits are used to change DC level (average) of the signal which adds or subtracts DC value with the signal. In clamping, shape of a wave form remains same only off set value (DC level) will change. Positive clamping adds positive DC level in the signal while negative clamping adds negative DC level in the signal Capacitor is widely used in the clamping circuit.

Clamping circuit is used in video amplifier of television receiver to restore DC level of video signal to preserve over all brightness of the scene. Clamping circuit is also used in offset control of function generator. Zero offset means no DC value is added in the AC signal.

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Positive Clamping:cuit In Cir 01 the

negative cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and conducts, charging the capacitor to the peak positive value of VIN. During the positive cycle, the diode is reverse biased and thus does not conduct. The output voltage is therefore equal to the voltage stored in the capacitor plus the input voltage gain, so VOUT = 2VIN Negative Clamping

Circuit 02 A negative unbiased clamp is the opposite of the equivalent positive clamp. In the positive cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and conducts, charging the capacitor to the peak value of VIN. During the negative cycle, the diode is reverse biased and thus does not conduct. The output voltage is therefore equal to the voltage stored in the capacitor plus the input voltage again, so VOUT = -2VIN

Procedure:I. Connect function generator with CRO. Set sine wave with 4V p-p .Ensure that offset voltage is 0 II. Connect the function generator at the input of the clamping circuit III. Observe out put waveform on the CRO for different for different clamping circuits and draw out put wave forms.

WORK SHEET:24

Draw circuit diagram (s) as per circuit available in the laboratory or circuit connected on breadboard. Conclusion:-

EXPERIMENT # 10
Wave form as the output of clipper circuits Objective:To observe wave form at the out put of clipper circuits

Equipment and Material:AC Supply Oscilloscope DMM Function Generator Diode 1n4007 Resistor

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Basic Concept:In electronics, a clipper is a device designed to prevent the output of a circuit from exceeding a predetermined voltage level without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.A clipping circuit consists of linear elements like resistors and non-linear elements like junction diodes or transistors, but it does not contain energy-storage elements like capacitors. Clipping circuits are used to select for purposes of transmission, that part of a signal wave form which lies above or below a certain reference voltage level.

Positive Cycle Clipper circuit:-

For Series diode: When Vi (t) < 0 , Diode D is ON Condition, input wave form is available at the out put . When Vi (t)>, diode D is in OF condition, input wave form is not available at the out put and remains zero.

For shunt diode: When Vi (t)< 0 , diode D is ON conduction which by pass the signal to the ground and hence input wave is not available at the output When Vi (t)>, diode D is in OFF condition, and acts like a OFF switch input wave is t available at the output For negative cycle clipper, polarity of diode is reverse. Series diode Positive clipping with positive reference:

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In the circuit shown in the following Figure, DC reference voltage is used this is useful of we do not want to clip entire positive cycle but some portion of positive half cycle. When Vi (t) < VR , diode D is ON conduction input wave available at the output. When Vi (t)> V R , diode D is in OFF condition, input wave is not available at the output and out put remains zero. Thus Portion of output cycle clips as shown in the wave form.

Series diode positive clipping with negative reference:If we want to clip entire positive half cycle along with some portion of the negative cycle then negative DC reference can be used as shown in the following figure. In this case only some portion of negative cycle passes to the out put

Series diode negative clipping with reference:

When Vi (t) < -VR , diode D is ON conduction input wave available at the output. When Vi (t)> -V R , diode D is in OFF condition, input wave is not available at the output and out put remains constant equal to V r. Thus entire positive cycle and some portion of negative cycle below V r clips.

Negative clipping can be achieved by changing polarity of the diode. Negative clipper with negative reference voltage is shown in the following figure. Some portion of negative cycle.

Shunt diode positive clipping with negative reference voltage:

When Vi (t) > -VR , diode D is ON conduction input wave available at the output. When Vi (t)< -V R , diode D is in OFF condition, input wave is not available at the output and out put remains constant which is equal to VR.

Shunt diode positive clipping with negative reference voltage is shown in the figure. This will clip entire positive cycle and some portion of negative cycle as shown in the wave form.

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When Vi < -VR Diode D is in OFF condition (open circuit) and input wave is available at the output. When Vi > - VR , Diode D is ON conduction, input wave is not available at the output and negative voltage VR is extended to the output. Out put voltage remains constant equal to VR . Thus entire positive cycle and some portion of negative cycle below -VR clips

Shunt diode negative clipping with negative reference:

Negative clipping with negative reference voltage can be achieved by reversing polarity of the diode. some portion of negative cycle clips When Vi (t) > - V R , Diode D is in OFF condition ( open circuit) and input wave form is available at the output When Vi (t) < -VR Diode D is in ON condition, input wave form is not available at the output and negative voltage VR is extended to the output. Output voltage remains constant equal to VR . Thus entire positive cycle and some portion of negative cycle below VR

Experiment Procedure :
Connect function generator with CRO . Set sine wave with 6 V peak to peak . Ensure that offset voltage is 0 Connect the function generator at the input of the clipping circuit Observe out put waveforms on the CRO for different clipping circuit and draw wave forms

WORK SHEET Circuit 01:-

Circuit 02 Consider zener voltage 2.5 V

Circuit 03:VR -3 V

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CIRCUIT 04:-

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EXPERIMENT # 11 TRANSISTOR DC ANALYSIS Objective:To find out the dc operating point of the given BJT transistor (DC analysis). Basic Concept:There are two basic types of transistors NPN and [Link] are used for biasing and many other purposes like amplification and for switching. Biasing of a transistor can be done by three types of configuration 1) Common base 2) Common collector 3) Common emitter It works in one of its three states active, saturation and cutoff. In this experiment we are using a BJT transistor. Equipment and materials:Bread board Power supply 24V DC Digital Multimeter (DMM)

NPN Transistor Resistors Procedure:-

2N2219A 10k ,10k ,1k ,150k

Vcc 24V

R4 150K

R1 10K

2N2219 A

R3 10K

R2 1K

Fig #1 BJT DC Analysis

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V b= ____________ V V c= ____________ V Ve= ____________ V V V V

be

= ____________ V = ____________ V = ____________ V

ce

cb

Vr1= ____________ V Vr2= ____________ V Vr3= ____________ V Vr4= ____________ V I e=I

b

+I

I c= ____________ mA I b= ____________ mA I e= ____________ mA

Conclusion:-

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EXPERIMENT # 12 TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

Objective:To use the given BJT transistor as a switch. Basic Concept:When transistor is used as a switch it is either in the saturation or cutoff state. For saturation state the base emitter and base collector junctions are in forward bias .For cutoff state base emitter and base collector junctions are in reverse bias. Equipment and materials:Bread board Digital Multimeter (DMM)

NPN Transistor 2N2219A PNP Transistor 2N3906 Resistors 470,10k Procedure:Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on the right which uses the transistor as a switch. The supply voltage is not critical; anything between 5 and 12V is suitable. Take care to include the 10k resistor in the base connection or you will destroy the transistor as you test it! If the transistor is OK the LED should light when the switch is pressed and not light when the switch is released. To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the LED and the supply voltage.

Fig :1 A simple switching circuit to test an NPN transistor

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Conclusion:-

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