Electric Circuits Chapter 7 Response of First Order RL and RC Circuits

Michelle Sanchez
Tulane University

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RL and RC Circuits
This chapter will focus on circuits that consist of only sources, resistors, and either inductors or capacitors (but not both we will learn that in Ch. 8) Called (a) RL (resistor-inductor) and (b) RC (resistor-capacitor) circuits

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RL and RC Circuits
Analysis will be divided into 3 phases:
1

Consider currents and voltage that arise when stored energy in an inductor or capacitor is suddenly released to a resistive network
Happens when an inductor or capacitor is abruptly disconnected from its dc source Currents and voltages are called natural response of the circuit

Consider currents and voltages that arise when energy is being acquired by an inductor or capacitor due to the sudden application of a dc voltage or current source
Called the step response

Develop a general method that can be used to nd the response of RL and RC circuits to any abrupt change in a dc voltage or current source

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RL and RC Circuits

When there are no independent sources, the Thvenin voltage or Norton e current is 0 and the circuit reduces to one of those shown on slide 2 This is a natural response problem

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RL and RC Circuits

RL and RC circuits are known as rst-order circuits because their voltages and currents are described by a rst-order dierential equation
No matter how complex a circuit is, it can be reduced to a Thvenin or Norton equivalent connected to the terminals of e an inductor or capacitor If you have multiple inductors or capacitors, they must be connected so they can be replaced by a single element

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Natural Response of an RL Circuit

Assume the independent current source generates a constant current IS A and that the switch has been in a closed position for a long time

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Natural Response of an RL Circuit Long Time

All currents and voltages have reached a constant value Only constant (dc) currents can exist just prior to the switch being opened Therefore, inductor appears as a short circuit prior to the release of the stored energy di L =0 dt
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Natural Response of an RL Circuit Long Time

Voltage across inductive branch equals 0 and no current ows in R0 or R All source current IS appears in inductive branch Natural response requires nding the voltage and current at the terminals of the resistor after the switch has been opened
After the source has been disconnected and inductor begins releasing energy

Let t = 0 denote instant when the switch is opened need to nd v(t) and i(t) for t 0.
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Deriving Expression for Current

Use KVL, L di + Ri dt di L dt di dt dt di i i(t) dx i(t0 ) x ln = 0 = Ri R = idt L R = dt L R t = dy L t0 R = (t t0 ) L R = t L
R 9 / 56

i(t) i(t0 ) i(t) If t0 = 0, ln i(0)

i(t) = i(0)e L t for t 0

Deriving Expression for Current

Recall from Ch. 6 that instantaneous change of current cannot occur in an inductor First instant after switch has been opened, current in an inductor remains unchanged i(0 ) = i(0+ ) = i(0) = I0 i(t) = i(0)e L t for t 0
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Deriving Expression for Voltage

Voltage across resistor using Ohms Law v(t) = i(t)R = i(0)Re L t for t 0+ Voltage is only dened for t > 0 not at t = 0 Step change occurs in the voltage at 0 v(0 ) = 0 v(0+ ) = i(0)R
di v(0 ) = 0 because derivative of current = 0 and v = L dt = 0
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Power and Energy Expressions

Power p = vi = i2 R = v2 R 2 2 R t = i (0)Re L for t 0+

Energy
t

w =
0 t

pdx i2 (0)Re2 L x dx
R

=
0

= =

R 1 i2 (0)R 1 e2 L t 2(R/L) R 1 2 Li (0) 1 e2 L t for t 0 2 12 / 56

Significance of the Constant

R/L determines the rate at which current or voltage approaches 0 Reciprocal of this ratio is time constant L R t i(t) = i(0)e for t 0 = v(t) = i(0)Re for t 0+ p = i2 (0)Re for t 0+ 2t 1 2 w = Li (0) 1 e for t 0 2 Long time 5 or more time constants Two types of responses
Transient response momentary event Steady-state response response that exists a long time after the switching has taken place
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Significance of the Constant

The constant gives the time required for the current to reach its nal value di + R i(0) (0 ) = i(0) = dt L Decreases at a constant rate of
i(0) A/s

i(0) t i reaches its nal value in seconds i = i(0)

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Natural Response of an RL circuit

Calculating the natural response of an RL circuit is summarized as follows:

1 2

Find initial current i(0) through the inductor Find the time constant L = R Solve for i(t) t i(t) = i(0)e for t 0

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Natural Response of an RC Circuit

Assume the switch has been in position a for a long time, allowing the loop made up of the dc voltage source Vg , the resistor R1 , and the capacitor C to reach a steady-state condition

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Natural Response of an RC Circuit Long Time

All currents and voltages have reached a constant value Recall from Ch. 6 that capacitor behaves like an open circuit in the presence of a constant voltage dv C =0 dt Therefore, voltage source cannot sustain a current, so voltage source appears across capacitor terminals
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Natural Response of an RC Circuit Long Time

At t = 0, switch is moved from position a to b and the voltage in the capacitor is Vg Because there can be no instantaneous change in the voltage at the terminals of a capacitor, the problem reduces to 2nd circuit above

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Deriving Expression for Voltage

Use node-voltage, C dv v + dt R dv C dt dv dt dt dv v v(t) dx v(t0 ) x ln = 0 v R v = dt RC 1 = dt RC t 1 = dy RC t0 = 1 (t t0 ) RC 1 = t RC =
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v(t) v(t0 ) v(t) If t0 = 0, ln v(0)

v(t) = v(0)e RC t for t 0

Deriving Expression for Voltage

Recall from Ch. 6 that instantaneous change of voltage cannot occur in a conductor First instant after switch has been changed, voltage in a conductor remains unchanged v(0 ) = v(0+ ) = v(0) = V0 = Vg v(t) = v(0)e RC t for t 0
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Deriving Expression for Current

Current through resistor using Ohms Law i(t) = = v(t) R v(0) 1 t e RC for t 0+ R

Current is only dened for t > 0 not at t = 0 Step change occurs in the current at 0 i(0 ) = 0 v(0) i(0+ ) = R i(0 ) = 0 because derivative of voltage = 0 and i = C dv = 0 dt

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Power and Energy Expressions

Power p = vi = i2 R = = Energy
t

v2 R

v 2 (0) 2t e RC for t 0+ R

w =
0 t

pdx v 2 (0) 2 x e RC dx R 0 2t 1 v 2 (0) 1 e RC 2(1/RC) R 2t 1 2 Cv (0) 1 e RC for t 0 2

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= = =

Significance of the Constant

1/RC determines the rate at which current or voltage approaches 0 Reciprocal of this ratio is time constant = RC
t

v(t) = v(0)e for t 0 v(0) t i(t) = e for t 0+ R v 2 (0) 2t p = e for t 0+ R 2t 1 2 w = Cv (0) 1 e for t 0 2

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Significance of the Constant

The constant gives the time required for the voltage to reach its nal value dv + 1 v(0) (0 ) = v(0) = dt RC Decreases at a constant rate of
v(0) V /s

v(0) t v reaches its nal value in seconds v = v(0)

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Natural Response of an RC circuit

Calculating the natural response of an RC circuit is summarized as follows:

1 2

Find initial voltage v(0) across capacitor Find the time constant = RC

Solve for v(t) v(t) = v(0)e for t 0

t

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Step Response of RL and RC Circuits

Step Response response of a circuit to the sudden application of a constant voltage or current source

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Step Response of an RL Circuit

Energy stored in the inductor at the time the switch is closed is given in terms of a nonzero initial current i(0) Task is to nd expression for the current in the circuit and the voltage across the inductor after the switch has been closed

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Deriving Expression for Current

Use KVL, Vs = Ri + L L di dt di dt di dt di dt

= Ri + Vs =

Ri + Vs L R Vs = i L R di R Vs dt = i dt L R

dt
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Deriving Expression for Current

di i Vs R
i(t) i(0)

R = dt L = R L
t

dx x Vs R
Vs R Vs R Vs R Vs R

dy
0

ln

i(t) i(0) i(t) i(0)

R = t L = e L t
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Deriving Expression for Current

i(t) = When i(0) = 0, i(t) =

R Vs Vs + i(0) e L t for t 0 R R Vs Vs R t e L for t 0 R R

After switch has been closed, current increases exponentially from 0 to Vs /R

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Time Constant
Time constant L/R determines the rate of increase = L R Vs Vs t e R R

i(t) =

After 1 time constant after the switch has been closed, current will have reached approximately 63% of its nal value i( ) = Vs Vs 1 e R R Vs = 1 e1 R Vs 0.6321 R

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Time Constant

di dt

= = =

di (0) = dt i =

Vs 1 t e R Vs R t e R L Vs t e L Vs L Vs t L

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Deriving Expression for Voltage

R Vs Vs + i(0) e L t for t 0 R R di v = L dt Vs R Rt v(t) = L i(0) e L R L

i(t) =

= (Vs i(0)R) e L t for t 0+

Voltage across inductor is 0 before switch is closed then jumps to Vs i(0)R at the instant the switch is closed and decays exponentially to 0

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Deriving Expression for Voltage

When i(0) = 0, v(t) = Vs e L t Taking the derivative at 0 dv R (0) = Vs dt L R v = Vs Vs t L
R

Voltage approaches 0 because inductor current is approaching a constant value

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Deriving Expression for Current and Voltage Part 2

Representing current in a dierent way i(t) = Vs v(t) R Vs v(t) = R R 1 dv = R dt L dv = R dt

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di dt di L dt

Deriving Expression for Current and Voltage Part 2

v = dv R + v = 0 dt L

L dv R dt

Vs = Ri + L di R + i = dt L Vs L

di dt

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Step Response of an RC Circuit

Energy stored in the capacitor at the time the switch is closed is given in terms of a nonzero voltage v(0) Task is to nd expression for the voltage across the capacitor and current in the capacitor branch after the switch has been closed
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Deriving Expression for Voltage

Use node-voltage, vC dvC + C dt R dvC vC + dt RC dvC dt dvC dt dvC dt dt

= Is = Is C

vC Is + RC C 1 = (vC Is R) RC 1 = (vC Is R) dt RC =
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Deriving Expression for Voltage

dvC vC Is R vC (t) dx vC (0) x Is R ln vC (t) Is R vC (0) Is R vC (t) Is R vC (0) Is R

1 dt RC t 1 = dy RC 0 = = 1 t RC
1

= e RC t

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Deriving Expression for Voltage

vC (t) = Is R + (vC (0) Is R) e RC t for t 0 When vC (0) = 0, vC (t) = Is R Is Re RC t for t 0

1

After switch has been closed, voltage increases exponentially from 0 to Is R

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Time Constant
Time constant RC determines the rate of increase = RC
t

vC (t) = Is R Is Re

After 1 time constant after the switch has been closed, voltage will have reached approximately 63% of its nal value vC ( ) = Is R Is Re1 = Is R 1 e1 0.6321Is R

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Time Constant

dvC dt

= Is R = Is R = Is t e C Is C Is t C

1 t e t 1 e RC

dvC (0) = dt vC =

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Deriving Expression for Current

vC (t) = Is R + (vC (0) Is R) e RC t for t 0 dvC i = C dt 1 1 e RC t i(t) = C (vC (0) Is R) RC vC (0) 1 t = Is e RC for t 0+ R
1

Current through capacitor is 0 before switch is closed then jumps to Is vC (0)/R at the instant the switch is closed and decays exponentially to 0

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Deriving Expression for Current

When vC (0) = 0, i(t) = Is e RC t Taking the derivative at 0 di 1 (0) = Is dt RC 1 i = Is Is t RC Current approaches 0 because capacitor voltage is approaching a constant value
1

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Deriving Expression for Voltage and Current Part 2

Representing voltage in a dierent way vC (t) = R(Is i(t)) dvC dt dvC C dt = RIs Ri(t) di = R dt di = RC dt
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Deriving Expression for Voltage and Current Part 2

i = RC

di dt

di 1 + i = 0 dt RC vC dvC +C Is = R dt dvC 1 Is + vC = dt RC C
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General Solution for Step and Natural Responses

x(t) represents current or voltage at the terminals of an inductor or the current or voltage at the terminals of a capacitor All take this form: dx x + dt = K

where K can be 0

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General Solution for Step and Natural Responses

The nal value of x will be constant so xf is the nal value of the variable xf dx dt = K x = +K (x K ) = (x xf ) = 1 = dt = 1
t dx dt

=0

dx x xf
xt x(t0 )

du u xf

dv
t0
(tt0 ) 48 / 56

x(t) = xf + (x(t0 ) xf ) e

General Solution for Step and Natural Responses

x(t) = xf + (x(t0 ) xf ) e

(tt0 )

Unknown variable as a function of time (ttime of switching) = nal value + (initial value nal value)e time constant In many cases, the time of switching equals 0 (t0 = 0)

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General Solution for Step and Natural Responses

Calculating the natural or step response of RL or RC circuits
1

Identify the variable of interest for the circuit

For RC circuits, it is best to choose the capacitive voltage For RL circuits, it is best to choose the inductive current

Determine initial value of the variable, which is its value at t0

If you choose capacitive voltage or inductive current as your variable of interest, it is not necessary to distinguish between t(0 ) and t(0+ ) (like 0 and 0+ ) because both are continuous variables If you choose another variable, you need to remember that the initial value is dened at t = t+ 0

Calculate the nal value of the variable, which is its value at t Calculate the time constant

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General Solution for Natural Responses

General Formula: xf = K dx x + dt = K
(tt0 )

x(t) = xf + (x(t0 ) xf ) e Inductor Current: = L/R and xf = 0

di R + i = 0 dt L R i(t) = i(0)e L t for t 0 Inductor Voltage: = L/R, xf = 0, and v(0+ ) = i(0)R v(t) = i(0)Re L t for t 0+
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General Solution for Natural Responses

General Formula: xf = K dx x + dt = K
(tt0 )

x(t) = xf + (x(t0 ) xf ) e Capacitor Voltage: = RC and xf = 0

dv 1 + v = 0 dt RC 1 v(t) = v(0)e RC t for t 0 Capacitor Current: = RC, xf = 0, and i(0+ ) = i(t) = v(0) 1 t e RC for t 0+ R
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v(0) R

General Solution for Step Responses

General Formula: xf = K dx x + dt = K
(tt0 )

x(t) = xf + (x(t0 ) xf ) e Inductor Current: = L/R and xf = Vs /R di R + i = dt L i(t) = Vs L Vs Vs + i(0) R R

e L t for t 0

Inductor Voltage: = L/R, xf = 0, and v(0+ ) = Vs i(0)R dv R + v = 0 dt L R v(t) = (Vs i(0)R) e L t for t 0+
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General Solution for Step Responses

General Formula: xf = K dx x + dt = K
(tt0 )

x(t) = xf + (x(t0 ) xf ) e Capacitor Voltage: = RC and xf = Is R

dvC 1 Is + vC = dt RC C 1 vC (t) = Is R + (vC (0) Is R) e RC t for t 0 Capacitor Current: = RC, xf = 0, and i(0+ ) = Is di 1 + i = 0 dt RC i(t) = Is vC (0) R e RC t for t 0+
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vC (0) R

Sequential Switching
When switching occurs more than once in a circuit Examples
A single two-position switch may be switched back and forth Multiple switches may be opened and closed in sequence

The time reference for all switching cannot be at t = 0 Determine the voltages and currents generated by a switching sequence by using techniques we learned in this chapter
Derive the expressions for v(t) and i(t) for a given position of the switch or switches Use these solutions to determine the initial conditions for the next position of the switch or switches

Anything but inductive currents and capacitive voltages can change instantaneously at the time of switching Drawing the circuit that pertains to each time interval in such a problem is often helpful in the solution process
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Unbounded Response
Circuit response may grow, rather than decay, exponentially with time This is possible if the circuit contains dependent sources
In this case, the Thvenin equivalent resistance with respect to e to the terminals of either an inductor or a capacitor may be negative

Negative resistance generates a negative time constant and the resulting currents and voltages increase without limit In reality, the response eventually reaches a limiting value when a component breaks down or goes into a saturation state, prohibiting further increases in voltage or current When having unbounded responses, concept of a nal value is confusing, so instead of using step response solution, derive the dierential equation from scratch
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