BasicSoftStarterPrinciples
ThePrinciplesofFixedSpeedInductionMotorControl
Sinceitsinventiononehundredyearsago,thestandard3phaseinductionmotorhasbecomeone [Link], lowcost,reliabilityandrelativelyhighefficiency,itislikelytoremaintheprimesourceof
mechanicalenergyforindustrialapplications. Introduction
Theconversionofenergyfromtheelectricalsupplytorotatingmechanicalenergyistheprimary [Link],mostmotorcircuitsrequireamechanismtoconnect anddisconnectthemfromtheirelectricalpowersourceand,electromechanicalswitches,knownas 'Contactors',[Link],morethanonehundred yearsaftertheirintroduction,contactorbasedsystemsremainthemostwidelyusedmethodof [Link],thereisadefinitetrendtowardsmoresophisticatedelectronic systemsofcontrolbeingappliedtofixedspeedmotordrivesandherewediscussthenewestform ofcontrolnamely,electronic,microprocessorcontrolled,optimisingsoftstarters.
TheInductionMotor
Inordertoappreciatethebenefitsofusinganelectroniccontroller,itisimportanttohavesome understandingofthecharacteristicsandlimitationsoftheinductionmotorandtheelectro mechanicalsystemscurrentlyusedtocontrolthem. Thestandard,fixedspeedinductionmotorhastofulfiltwobasicrequirements: Toaccelerateitselfanditsloadtofullspeed(orspeedsinthecaseofmultispeedmotors) Tomaintaintheloadatfullspeedefficientlyandeffectivelyoverthefullrangeofloadings. Duetotheconstraintsofmaterialsanddesign,itcanbedifficulttoachievebothobjectives effectivelyandeconomicallyinonemachine.
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So,howdoesamotorstartinthefirstplace?
Asmentionedearlier,motorsconvertelectricalenergydrawnfromthepowersupplyintoa mechanicalform,[Link] poweravailablefromtheshaftisequaltothetorque(moment)multipliedbytheshaftspeed(rpm). Fromaninitialvalueatstandstill,thetorquealters,upordown,asthemachineaccelerates, reachingapeakatabouttwothirdsfullspeed,[Link] characteristicmeansthatinductionmotorsalwaysrunatslightlylessthansynchronousspeedin ordertodeveloppowertheslipspeedand,[Link], whichshowsaninductionmotortorque/speedcurve,illustratesthismostimportantcharacteristic.
Torque/Speedcurvefortheinductionmotor
Asforeachtypeofmotor,soeachloadcoupledtoaninductionmotorhasitsownspeed/torque curve:
Torque/SpeedCurveCoupledload
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Theaccelerationofamotorloadsystemiscausedbythedifferencebetweenthedevelopedtorque (motor)andtheabsorbedtorque(load)andisshownbytheshadedareainthenextfigure:
Torque/SpeedCurveAcceleratingTorque
Obviously,thelargerthedifference,thefastertheaccelerationandthequickerfullspeedisreached and,coincidentally,thegreaterthestressesexperiencedbythesupplyanddrivesystemsduring [Link]"ideal"startwouldacceleratetheloadwithjustsufficientforceto reachfullspeedsmoothlyinareasonabletime,andwithminimumstresstothesupplyanddrive mechanisms. Broadlyspeaking,themotorspeed/torquecharacteristiciscontrolledbytherotorresistancea motorwithhighrotorresistancecangenerateitspeaktorque(pullouttorque)atstandstillgiving thehighbreakawaytorquecharacteristic,whichreducessteadilyasthespeedincreasesand [Link],amotorwithaverylowrotor resistancewillproducealowstartingtorquebutwillgenerateitspeaktorqueclosertothe [Link] [Link],moderninductionmotorstocombinethetwin requirementsofhighstartingtorqueandefficientfullspeedoperationwithinasinglemotorby techniquessuchasdoublecageordeepbardesign,andthismotorcharacteristicisidealforuse withsoftstartercontrol.
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Torque/SpeedCurveHighstartingtorque/Highefficiencymotor
StartingInductionMotors
[Link] theinstantofswitchingalltheenergynecessarytomagnetisethemotor,toprovidethe accelerationforce,andtosupplythekineticenergyoftherotorandload,mustbepresenttogether [Link] placesconsiderablestressesonthesupply,themotorwindings,andtheironcoresofthestatorand [Link] oscillationsintheshaftcausingsevereweartotransmissions,[Link] accelerationwhentheloadinertiaishighsuchasincentrifugalfanscausesbeltstoslipinthe pulleys,producingrapidwearandearlyfailure.
ElectroMechanicalMethodsofStarting MethodA:DirectonLine/Acrosstheline
Thesimplestmeansofcontrollingenergyflowtoaninductionmotoristointerruptthepower supplybyasingle,solenoidoperated,3phaseswitch,[Link], themethodisknownvariouslyas"directonline","acrosstheline","direct"etc.,andistheusual formofcontrolwherelowcostisthefirst,[Link],itismost oftenusedonsmallermotorsizes(7.5upto22kW),orwherethesupplyisstrongenoughto [Link] harsh,damagingeffectsdescribedearlierareallimposedbydirectonlinestartingand,asacontrol method;[Link],although
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attractiveatfirstsight,hidelargecostpenaltiesintheshapeofincreasedmaintenance,reduced transmissionequipmentlifeandhigherriskofmotorfailure,particularlywhenfrequentstopping [Link],athighercost, [Link],theshortcomingsofthedirect onlinestarterhavebeenrecognisedeversincemotorshavebeenusedandalternativesystems havebeendevelopedovertheyearstoreducethedamagingeffectsofthisformofcontrol.
MethodB:StarDeltaandotherReducedVoltageStartingSystems
Reducedvoltagestartingmakesuseofthefactthatmotortorqueisproportionaltothesquareof theterminalvoltageandthemostfamiliartypeofreducedvoltagestarteristhestardeltaorwye [Link](whichcanbemechanical, pneumatic,electricalorelectronic),thestardeltastarterchangesthemotorwindingconfiguration fromaninitialstarconnectiontoadeltaasthemotoraccelerates. Thechangeoverortransitionpointiscontrolledbythetimeswitchandisusuallyarrangedtobeat 80%[Link] 58%[Link](LRT)witha [Link] improvementoverthedirectsystem,significantdisadvantagesstillremain. [Link] themotorisunderthemechanicalinfluenceoftherotatingloadand,attheinstantof disconnection,currentwillstillflowintherotorbarsduetothetimedelaynecessaryforthe [Link],thereisaresidualflux"frozen"onthesurfaceoftherotating rotor,whichcutsthestatorwindings,generatingavoltagewhosefrequencydependsontherotor [Link],suchasinapump,orifthefrictionishigh,therecouldbea [Link],whenthe reconnectiontodeltaismade,alargephasedifferentialcanexistbetweenthesupplyandtherotor fluxes. Thiscangiverisetoverylargecurrentsurges(asmuch,ormorethanfullvoltagelockedrotor current),togetherwithmassivetransienttorqueoscillations.(Theseoscillationscanbeasmuchas fivetimesfullloadtorque.)Althoughtheeffectsdescribedareonlypresentforaveryshortperiod oftime(aboutonefifthofasecond),theyaresourcesofgreatstressanddamagetothewhole drivesystem,andwherefrequentstartingisnecessary,[Link] methodsofcontrol,forexample,theclosedtransitionstarter,whicheliminateorreducethe [Link],suchstartersareexpensiveandhavereliabilityimplications;for [Link] restrictedstartingtorqueavailable(ifyouneed40%LRTtobreakaway,youcanonlyincreasethe motorsize,orreverttodirectonline).Combinedwiththesevereeffectsofthereswitchingsurges,
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andtheadditionalcostsofbringingsixconductorsfromthemotortothestarterinsteadofonly three,stardeltaonlyoffersanimperfectsolutiontotheproblemofstartingtheinductionmotor.
MethodC:PrimaryResistanceStarter
Ithaslongbeenrecognisedthatthetransitionstepinthestardeltasystemwasasourceof problemssuchasweldedcontactors,sheareddriveshaftsetc.,andformanyyearsamethodofstep [Link] insertsaresistanceinone,ormoreoftenineach,ofthephaseconnectionstothestatoratstartup, afterwhichitisprogressivelyreducedandshortedoutattheendoftheaccelerationprocess. Frequently,theresistancesaremovablebladesthataregraduallyimmersedinanelectrolyteliquid. Themechanismisusuallylargeandexpensive,bothtopurchaseandtomaintain,andconsiderable [Link] frequency(becausetheelectrolytehastocondensebacktoliquidbeforeanewstartcanproceed), andtheserestrictionspreventthisstarterfrombeingapopularoptionwhenselectingacontrol [Link],ithasthedistinctionofbeingthesmoothestandleaststressfulmethodof acceleratinganinductionmotoranditsload.
MethodD:OtherElectroMechanicalSystems
Othercontrolmethodssuchasautotransformerstarting(popularinNorthAmerica),primary reactancestartingetc.,areemployedtoagreaterorlesserextent,tocompensateforsomeofthe [Link],thefundamentalproblemsof electromechanicalstartersremain,anditisonlyinthelastdecadeortwothattheirdominancehas beenchallengedbytheintroductionofpowersemiconductorscontrolledbyelectronics.
TheSemiconductorMotorController
Duringthe1950's,mucheffortwasputintothedevelopmentofafourlayertransistordevicewhich hadthepowertoswitchlargecurrentsathighvoltageswhentriggeredbyaverysmallpulseof [Link](SCR),orinEurope,the Thyristor;[Link] interestistheabilityofthethyristortoswitchrapidly(inabout5millionthsofasecond)from"OFF" to"ON"whenpulsed,andtoremain"ON"untilthecurrentthroughthedevicefallstozero,which conveniently,[Link] theswitchonpointofathyristorrelativetothevoltagezerocrossingineachhalfwaveofan alternatingcurrent,[Link] turnonpointistothevoltagezerocrossingpoint,thelongertheenergyisallowedtoflowduring [Link],delayingtheturnonpointreducesthetimefortheenergytoflow. Puttingtwothyristorsbacktoback(orantiparallel)ineachofthephaseconnectionstoamotor,
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andbypreciselycontrollingtheirturnonpoints,anelectronicsoftstartercontinuouslyadjuststhe passageofenergyfromthesupplysothatitisjustsufficientforthemotortoperformsatisfactorily. So,forinstance,bystartingwithalargedelaytotheturnonpointineachhalfcycle,and progressivelyreducingitoveraselectedtimeperiod,thevoltageappliedtothemotorstartsfroma [Link] squareoftheappliedvoltage,thestartingtorquefollowsthesamepatterngivingthecharacteristic smooth,steplessstartofthesoftstarter.
RunningInductionMotors
[Link] workingatornearfullload,thetypical3phaseinductionmotorisrelativelyefficient,readily achievingefficienciesof85%to95%.However,asshownbelow,motorefficiencyfallsdramatically whentheloadfallstolessthan50%ofratedoutput.
EfficiencyvLoad
Infact,veryfewmotorsactuallyexperienceconsistentfullyratedoperation,thevastmajority operateatmuchlowerloadsduetoeitheroversizing(averyfrequentsituation),ornaturalload [Link],theaffinitylawswillallowtheinverterdrivetoshow veryconsiderableenergysavingsovervirtuallyallothermethodsofcontrolthroughvaryingthe speedofthemotorinresponsetochangesinload. Wheremotorspeedscannotbevaried,theoptimisingversionofthesemiconductormotor [Link] softstarterremainatfullconductionandthemotorthenbehavesasifitwereconnecteddirectlyto
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[Link],atlightloadsandmainsvoltages,inductionmotorsalwayshaveexcess magneticflux,[Link] loadatanyinstant,andadjustingthemotorterminalvoltageaccordingly,itispossibletosavesome oftheexcitationenergyandloadloss,andimprovemotorpowerfactorwhenthemotorisrunning inefficientlyatlightloads. AllFairfordsoftstartersaremicroprocessorcontrolled,andthisgivesthemanumberof [Link],therearenoadjustmentstobemadeforthe energysavingfunction:allcalculationsnecessarytofindthebestdegreeofphasebackofthe [Link],thestartalways synchroniseswiththesupplyvoltageandaspecialstructureofturnonpulsesvirtuallyeliminates theinrushcurrentsnormallyassociatedwithmotorstartup;[Link],there istheabsolutelysteplessstartingprocess,foundonlywiththeprimaryresistanceorreactance electromechanicalstartersbutwithoutthewastedenergy,andwiththeopportunitytocontrol [Link] stoppingareincluded,orareavailable,togiveconsiderablecontroloverallmodesofinduction motoroperation.
ReliabilityConsiderations
Oneaspectofelectroniccontrollersforinductionmotorswhichisofincreasingconcernisthatof [Link] potentiallyconsiderableamountsofmoneyifthedeviceisunreliabletothepointthatvital processesareconstantlyinterrupted. [Link] almostalwaysrelyonlessadvantageoustechnologiessuchasanaloguecontrol,orhalfcontrol, [Link] [Link] variablequalityandperformanceofmanysocalledinvertersandsoftstartersavailabletothe unsuspectingpurchaser,internationalstandardsfortheseproductshavebeen,orarebeing, developed. Aninternationalstandard,IEC6094742'ACSemiconductorMotorControllersandStarters' definesthesoftstarterineveryimportantrespect,includingthermalandoverloadperformanceas [Link] conformstoIEC6094742,ausershouldbereasonablysafeguardedfromshoddyorinadequate productswhenspecifyingequipmentforfutureinstallations. Aparticularadvantageoftheuseoftheoptimisingsoftstarterisitsimpactonthemaintenance [Link]
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[Link] [Link] airconditioning,[Link] runningcurrentsreducescablelossesand,contactorswitchingoperationsarecarriedoutunderthe [Link] theThyristorsvirtuallyeliminatingtheneedforcontactreplacement. Indeed,thereareagrowingnumberofinstallationswherecontactorsarenolongeremployed, beingreplacedbycontrollablecircuitbreakersorisolatorsinstead. Insummary,electroniccontrollersformostfixedspeedapplicationsareopeningnewwaysof increasingtheefficientoperationofinductionmotors,aswellasofferingsignificantbenefitsin [Link] theyexpecttofitandthiscanbereasonablyexpectedifcompliancewiththeappropriateIEC standardsisdemanded.
SD0018803
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