Philosophy of the Human Person

Introduction to Philosophy
Philosophy, derived from the Greek words "philo" (love) and "sophia" (wisdom), is the love of
wisdom and the pursuit of knowledge. It is a systematic investigation into fundamental
questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.

Core Questions of Philosophy:

Where am I? (Metaphysics)
How do I know it? (Epistemology)
What should I do? (Ethics/Politics)

Characteristics of Philosophy:
Mother of all science: It is the foundational discipline from which other sciences have
emerged.
A way of life: It is not just an academic pursuit but a manner of living and thinking.
Systematic investigation: It involves a structured and organized approach to inquiry.
Persistent quest for knowledge and truth: It is characterized by a continuous pursuit of
understanding.
Widest generalizations: It seeks to explain broad phenomena and fundamental principles.
Focus on fundamentals and root causes: It delves into the underlying reasons for things.
Desire to integrate into a coherent whole: It strives to connect disparate ideas into a unified
understanding.

Salient Features of Philosophy:

1. Philosophy is a Science: It employs reason and systematic methods.
2. It employs the Natural Light of Reason: It relies on human intellect and rationality.
3. Inclination to Study All Things: It has a broad scope, examining all aspects of existence.
4. It employs First Cause or Highest Principle: It seeks the ultimate origins and fundamental
explanations.

Characteristics of First Cause or Highest Principle:

1. Principle of Identity: Everything is what it is. What is, is, and what is not, is not.
2. Principle of Non-Contradiction: It is impossible for something to be and not be at the same
time and in the same respect.
3. Principle of Excluded Middle: Everything must either be or not be; there is no middle ground.
4. Principle of Sufficient Reason: Everything that exists has a reason for its being and existence.
Nothing exists without a reason.

Branches of Philosophy
Cognitive Branches:
Metaphysics:
Deals with questions regarding reality, existence, and being. It investigates the nature of
reality, including abstract concepts like mind and matter, and explores unreal entities in
relation to the real world.
Key Questions: Where am I? What is real?
Example: Plato's idea that our experienced reality is merely a copy of a higher realm of
Forms.

Epistemology:
The study of the nature, sources, limitations, and validity of human knowledge.
Key Questions: How do I know it? How do we distinguish true from false knowledge?
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge:
Induction (Empiricism): Deriving general ideas from specific observations and
empirical evidence.
Deduction (Rationalism): Arriving at specific ideas from generally accepted principles.
(Proponents: René Descartes)
Pragmatism: Truth is determined by its practical value and utility. (Proponents: William
James, John Dewey)

Logic:
The science and art of correct thinking and reasoning. It serves as a tool to guide arguments
and discourses, ensuring their validity and truthfulness.
Key Function: To make arguments valid and true. (Proponent: Aristotle)

Normative Branches:
Ethics (Morality):
Deals with human actions, evaluating them as good or bad, right or wrong, acceptable or
unacceptable, justifiable or not.
Key Questions: What should I do? What is right and wrong?
Focus: Evaluation of human actions and the nature of moral virtue.

Politics:
Deals with the principles of social systems and governance.
Key Questions: What is the ideal society? How should societies be organized?

Aesthetics:
Concerned with the nature of art, beauty, and objective judgments of beauty.
Key Questions: What is beauty? What makes something art?

Methods of Philosophizing
Determining Truth:
 Opinion: A personal belief, impression, or judgment, not necessarily based on fact.
Truth: Something that has been proven by facts or sincerity. In science, it's observable reality;
in philosophy, it's a quality and value.

Ways on Determining Truth:

1. Justification through Senses: A belief is true if it can be justified or proven using one's senses.
2. Basis on Facts: A belief or statement is true if it is based on observable facts.
3. Consensus: Getting agreement from a group of people on a common belief.
4. Actions: Statements can be considered true through their practical application and outcomes.

Arguments and Fallacies:

Argument: A series of statements intended to convince a listener or reader of the truthfulness
of an opinion.
Fallacy (Fake Argument): A group of statements that appear to be arguments but are based
on faulty reasoning.

Types of Fallacy:
Argumentum ad hominem (Argument against the Person): Attacking the person presenting
the argument rather than the argument itself.
Argumentum ad baculum (Appeal to Force): Using the threat of force or an undesirable event
to advance an argument.
Argumentum ad misericordiam (Appeal to Emotion): Manipulating emotions (like pity or
sympathy) to convince someone.
Argumentum ad populum (Appeal to Popular/Bandwagon): Presenting an argument as valid
simply because a large number of people accept it.

Bias:
Bias: Tendencies or influences that affect people's views. Awareness of bias is crucial for
objective examination of viewpoints.

Types of Bias:
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to look for and accept information that confirms one's
existing beliefs, while disregarding contradictory evidence.
Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that it was predictable.
Correspondence Bias (or Attribution Effect): Judging a person's personality based on their
actions without considering external factors or situational influences.
Framing: Focusing on one aspect of a problem or issue while ignoring others, leading to a
skewed perception.

Approaches in Doing Philosophy

Reductionism vs. Holism:
Reductionism:
The belief that complex phenomena can be explained by breaking them down into simpler
 component parts. The focus is on the properties of each part.
Proponent: René Descartes (likened the world to a machine with parts).

Holism:
The theory that parts of a whole are interconnected and cannot be understood independently
of the whole. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The emphasis is on the
relationship between parts.
Proponents: Aristotle, Jan Smuts.

Note: Holism is often considered the primary approach for understanding the philosophy of the
human person, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all aspects of human existence.

The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit

Plato's Concept of a Human Being:
Dualism:
Plato proposed that humans are composed of two distinct realities: the body and the soul.
Body: Tangible, belongs to the world of senses, subject to decay and imperfection.
Soul: Intangible, belongs to the world of ideas, perfect and capable of knowing all things.

Separability: The soul is separable from the body; when the body dies, the soul returns to the
world of ideas.
Limitation: The body imprisons the soul, limiting its capacity for knowledge and action.
"Go out of the cave!": Plato's allegory of the cave suggests transcending sensory limitations
to reach true knowledge.
Good Life: A life ruled by reason, where the rational part of the soul controls the bodily desires
and emotions.

René Descartes' Concept of the Thinking Thing:

Mind-Body Dualism:
Descartes further separated the mind (soul) from the body.
Mind (Thinking Thing): The faculty of thought, which cannot be doubted. "Cogito, ergo
sum" (I think, therefore I am).
Body: Material, subject to doubt and deception through the senses.

Doubt: The act of doubting is itself indubitable. The process of thinking is the essence of
existence.
Superiority of the Mind: Descartes believed the mind is superior to the body, commanding its
actions.

Freedom of the Human Person

Concepts of Freedom:
Freedom: The power to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint;
 liberty and independence.

Perspectives on Freedom:

Theological Perspective:
Ma. Christina Astorga: Emphasizes that liberation is deeply connected to a people's beliefs,
values, and religion. The struggle for justice and freedom is rooted in cultural consciousness
and religiosity.
Gustavo Gutierrez:
Popularized liberation theology, focusing on
praxis
(critical reflection on Christian practice). Liberation is a deeper, more genuine process than
mere imitation, aiming for a qualitative dimension of salvation and active Church
involvement.
Key Idea: Total liberation is incomplete if injustice and oppression persist. The suffering of
others is a universal concern.

Sociological Perspective:
Karl Marx:
Argued that human beings are fundamentally social beings whose freedom is achieved
through positive social relations. He viewed history as a class struggle driven by economic
laws.
Critique of Capitalism: In capitalism, freedom is often restricted by economic inequality;
only those with money enjoy true freedom. Revolution is seen as a means to create a
classless society with equal freedom.

Paulo Freire:
Defined freedom as acquired through
praxis
—a balance between theory and informed action. Freedom is not an abstract concept but is
lived within historical, social, and political circumstances.
Key Idea: Freedom is a revolutionary, dynamic, and social concept that is constantly being
created and lived.

Philosophical Perspective:
Absolute Determinism (e.g., B.F. Skinner): Posits that human actions are determined by past
experiences and events, meaning individuals are not truly free.
Absolute Indeterminism (e.g., J.P. Sartre): Argues that humans are entirely free with no limits
to their freedom.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (Situated Freedom): Believes that choice is always embedded in and
dependent upon the specific social and historical situation. We are free to choose based on
the meaning we find in our circumstances.
Max Scheler:
Differentiated between:
Freedom of Choice (Horizontal Freedom): The basic, particular choices we make daily.
Fundamental Option (Vertical Freedom): Our general life direction and orientation,
 reflecting our core values.

The Problem of Free Will:

Arises from the suspicion that our actions might be determined by factors beyond our control
(e.g., fate, God, physics, heredity, environment, unconscious motives).
Incompatibilists:
Believe free will and determinism are incompatible.
Libertarians: Incompatibilists who believe free will exists and determinism is false.

St. Thomas Aquinas' Concept of Freedom:

The human person possesses intellect and will, created in the image of God.
The will is a fundamental part of human nature, and its development is essential for human
perfection.
Freedom is a property of the whole human being, not just a part.
The will is not independent of the intellect; they engage in a dynamic interaction.
Liberum Arbitrium: Aquinas favored this term (free decision or judgment) over "free will."

Prudence in Choices:
Prudence:
The ability to make careful decisions, avoiding risks or harm. It is the virtue concerned with
the intellect, guiding right action.
St. Thomas Aquinas: Ranked prudence as the first cardinal virtue. It is "right reason applied
to practice."
Aristotle: Defined prudence as "recta ratio agibilium" (right reason applied to practice). It
allows us to judge correctly what is right and wrong.

Evaluating and Exercising Prudence: Requires careful consideration before making important
decisions to avoid unmanageable problems and focus on long-term goals.
Stages of a Human Act (from perception to action of the will):
1. Intellect apprehends a situation and determines an appropriate end. Will approves or
rejects.
2. Intellect determines the end is achievable. Will forms an intention.
3. Intellect counsels various means. Will accepts or requests more.
4. Intellect determines the best means. Will elects the best means.
5. Intellect commands action. Will executes the action.

Cardinal Virtues (According to St. Thomas Aquinas):

1. Prudence: Concerned with the intellect; guides right action.
2. Justice: Concerned with the will; giving everyone their rightful due.
3. Fortitude: Allows us to overcome fear and remain steady in the face of obstacles (courage).
4. Temperance: Restrains desires and passions, finding the "golden mean" to avoid excess.

Note: Prudence, Justice, and Fortitude help decide what needs to be done and provide the
strength to do it. Temperance balances desires.

The Consequences of Choosing

Vocabulary:
Choice: The fundamental element of freedom; the capacity to determine or select a decision
from multiple options.
Consequence: The result or outcome of a given action.
Freedom: The quality of being free; absence of necessity, coercion, or restraint.

Death and the Human Person

The Reality of Death:
Definition: The end of bodily functions and the separation of the body and spirit.
Material vs. Immaterial: The body is material, subject to time, space, growth, and decay. The
spirit is immaterial and continues to exist after the body's demise.
Transcendence and Limitation: While the spirit can transcend physical limits, the material
nature of the person is still bound by the laws of nature.

Different Views on Death:

Buddhism:
Life is a practice for death, cultivating positive mental states.
Death is definite but its timing is uncertain; Buddhists aspire to be ready.
Belief in transmigration of souls makes death an opportunity for achievement.
Death should be met with a calm, peaceful mind and positive thoughts.
Emphasizes acceptance, contentment, and letting go of attachments.

Existentialism (Jean-Paul Sartre):

Death is a constant presence that can lead to freedom or anguish.
Nothingness (inherent lack of self) is the source of human possibilities.

Hedonism (Epicureanism):
Good is pleasure, evil is pain.
Death is not a sensation, so it should not be feared. Fear arises from the anticipation of
death, not death itself.

Phenomenology (Martin Heidegger):

Death is "inescapable."
People tend to fear death and think of it as concerning only others.
Death often connotes suffering, pain, misfortune, and leaving loved ones behind.

Vocabulary:
Life: The quality distinguishing vital and functional beings from dead bodies.
 Death: The separation of the body and spirit.
Finite: Having an end.
Self-Determination: The capacity to choose and act for oneself.
Being-in-the-World: The reality that human beings have the possibility of death.

Implications of Mortality:
Life is Finite: Life is not everlasting, and death is a natural end.
Religious View: Death is not the end; "life after death" or "life everlasting" with God is believed
to occur.
Purpose and Meaning: The awareness of finitude can influence how one lives, encouraging a
focus on purpose and legacy.

Performance Output: "My Life's Meaning Manifesto"

This is a personal reflection on:

1. Who I Am: A short self-description.

2. What Gives My Life Meaning: Identifying people, values, beliefs, experiences, or goals that are
significant.
3. How I Want to Live: Describing daily practices and values despite challenges.
4. The Legacy I Want to Leave: How one wishes to be remembered.
5. Personal Motto: A guiding quotation or original life motto.

Individual Activity: "Life Timeline: Living with

Purpose"
This activity involves:

1. Drawing a timeline of one's life.

2. Marking at least 8 important milestones (past experiences, present goals, future dreams).
3. Writing a lesson learned or hoped to learn beside each milestone.
4. Answering reflection questions about how finitude influences life, desired legacy, and current
sources of meaning.