BABMH202

Sensors and Signals

(For Third Semester [Link]. Mechatronics and Automation)
(Pre-requisite: NIL)

Module 1
Course Instructor:

Introduction to Sensors and Dr. B A G Yuva Raju

Transducers Assistant Professor Sr. Gr-2,
School of Mechanical Engineering,
Vellore Institute of Technology Chennai
Disclaimer: All images and supporting materials included in this presentation are drawn from open-source and publicly available references.
The content has been compiled from sources considered reliable and is provided solely for educational and non-commercial purposes.
Syllabus
Course Code Course Title L T P C

BABMH202 Sensors and Signals 3 0 2 4

Pre-requisite NIL Syllabus version

1.0

Course Objectives

1. To understand the principles, characteristics and classifications of sensors and transducers.

2. To learn the design and implementation of signal conditioning, data acquisition, and sensor interfacing techniques with
microcontrollers.
3. To enable students to analyse, process and integrate sensor data for real-world applications.

Course Outcomes

At the end of the course, the student will be able to

1. Understand the concepts of sensors and measurements and study its characteristics.
2. Identify and select appropriate sensors for measuring different physical quantities.
3. Design appropriate signal conditioning circuits for different sensors.
4. Develop and program microcontroller-based systems for analog and digital sensor interfacing.
5. Analyse sensor signals using signal processing techniques.

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Syllabus
Module: 1 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers 8 hours

Sensors and transducers – Active and passive Sensors – Errors and calibration – Static and dynamic characteristics of sensors –
Transduction principles: Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive and other types.

Module: 2 Measurement of Mechanical Quantities 14 hours

Displacement and position sensors: LVDT, potentiometers and optical encoders – Velocity and acceleration sensors: Tacho-generators,
Hall-effect sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes – Force, torque and strain measurement: Strain gauges, load cells, piezoelectric sensors –
Pressure sensors: Bourdon tube, capacitive, piezoelectric, piezoresistive sensors – Temperature sensors – thermocouples, RTDs,
thermistors – Level sensors: Capacitive, ultrasonic and optical level sensors.

Module: 3 Signal Conditioning and Data Acquisition 9 hours

Need for signal conditioning: Overview and functions – Integration of Amplifiers, bridges, filters and error compensation circuits with
sensors – Analog-to-Digital (ADC) and Digital-to-Analog (DAC) conversion – Signal isolation and grounding techniques – Data acquisition
systems: Components and architecture – Smart Sensors.

Module: 4 Sensor Interfacing 6 hours

Analog and digital sensor interfacing with Microcontrollers: principles and wiring – Sensor data acquisition using microcontrollers –
Programming for sensor interfacing – Smart sensor interfaces using I²C, SPI, UART and CAN.

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Syllabus
Module: 5 Signal Processing and Sensor Fusion 6 hours

Introduction to signal processing – Sampling theorem, aliasing and anti-aliasing filters – Digital filters: FIR and IIR basics – Introduction to
sensor fusion concepts: combining multiple sensor data.

Module: 6 Contemporary Topics 2 hours

Total Lecture hours: 45 hours

Text Book(s)

1. Ramon Pallas-Areny & John G. Webster, Sensors and Signal Conditioning, 3rd Edition, Wiley, 2020.

2. Ernest. O. Doebelin, Danish N. Manik, Measurement Systems, 7th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2019.

Reference Books

1. Ian R. Sinclair and John Dunton, Sensors and Transducers, 4th Edition, Newnes/Elsevier, 2019.

2. D. Patranabis, Sensors and Transducers, 3rd Edition, PHI Learning, 2019.

3. Markus Klein, Sensor and Data Fusion: A Tool for Information Assessment and Decision Making, Springer, 2020.

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Mark Configuration

S. No. Assessment Title Due Date Max. Mark Weightage %

1 Digital Assignment – I (Video Making) 05-Aug-2026 10 10

Digital Assignment – II (Signal

2 23-Sep-2026 10 10
Conditioning )

3 Digital Assignment – III (Prototype) 30-Oct-2026 10 10

4 Continuous Assessment Test (CAT) – I - 50 15

5 Continuous Assessment Test (CAT) – II - 50 15

6 Final Assessment Test - 100 40

Total Weightage Mark 100

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Details of Digital Assignments
Digital Assignment 1:
❑ Select an industrial application and choose an appropriate sensor for it.
❑ Identify all input parameters measured by the sensor and describe the form of the output signal.
❑ Create a video demonstrating the transduction principle used in the selected sensor, clearly explaining
how the sensor converts the physical input variable into an electrical output.
Digital Assignment 2:
❑ Change at least one input variable and record the corresponding sensor output.
❑ Collect and submit the generated data to show how the sensor responds to variations in the input
parameter.
Digital Assignment 3:
❑ Design a complete smart sensor system using the selected sensor for the chosen industrial application.
❑ The system must include sensing, signal conditioning, processing, and output.
❑ A working prototype (hardware or simulated) must be submitted.

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Sensors and Signals

Sensors? Instrumentation? Gauges,

❖ Device that detects and
sensors,
transmitters,
responds to a physical stimulus controllers
or change in the environment
❖ Instrumentation is the set of tools and devices

❑ a sensor acts as a translator, used to perform measurement and control.

turning a physical property ❖ use of instruments for observing, measuring, or

into a readable electrical controlling a physical quantity.

format that electronics can Measurement System?

understand. ❑ A measurement system is the complete
system that measures a quantity.
❖ Converts physical quantity to usable data
Sensor → signal conditioner → processor → display

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Sensors and Signals
What is the NEED? Automated Tool Positioning Reduced operator dependence
Servo/stepper motor motion control
Spindle speed sensing and control

Safety sensors and interlocks

Tool wear and breakage monitoring

Relies heavily on manual control Vibration and acoustic monitoring
Encoder-based X and Z axis measurement
Closed-loop feedback control
High precision and repeatability
Automated machining cycles
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Why Sensors& Signals Matter in Mechatronics?
❖ Foundation of Mechatronics Systems
✓ Sensors and instrumentation form the “sensing” and “perception” layer of smart machines.
❖ Enabling Smart Decisions
✓ Machines can only respond intelligently when they can sense accurately.
❖ Bridging Physical to Digital
✓ Convert real-world phenomena (force, position, temperature, etc.) into usable electrical
signals.
❖ Industrial Relevance
✓ Widely used in robotics, automotive systems, aerospace, manufacturing, medical devices,
and IoT.
❖ Research & Innovation Driver
✓ Essential for areas like AI integration, cyber-physical systems, digital twins, and automation.

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Why Learn Actuators? (Motivation)
❖ The Action Layer of Mechatronics
▪ Actuators provide the motion, movement, or response based on sensor inputs.
❖ From Data to Physical Output
▪ Enables robots to grip, valves to open, arms to move, and vehicles to steer.
❖ Understanding Real-World Interactions
▪ Learning actuators builds skills to handle forces, dynamics, control systems, and power
electronics.
❖ Smart Actuation = Intelligent Systems
▪ Coupled with sensors, actuators enable adaptive, autonomous, and human-interactive
systems.
❖ Career & Research Opportunities
▪ Vital in robotics, biomechanics, automation, drones, prosthetics, and machine design.

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Real-World Applications
1. Industrial Automation 4. Smart Robotics
▪ Sensors monitor temperature, pressure, vibration. ▪ Tactile sensors allow robots to “feel” and grip
▪ Actuators control conveyor belts, robotic arms, objects gently.
CNC tools. ▪ Servos and pneumatic actuators drive precision
2. Autonomous Vehicles movement.
▪ LIDAR, cameras, ultrasonic sensors detect 5. Aerospace & Defense
obstacles. ▪ Instrumentation ensures flight stability, fuel
▪ Electric motors and steering actuators enable monitoring.
motion and path correction. ▪ Actuators used in flap control, missile guidance
3. Medical & Healthcare systems.
▪ Bio-sensors in wearables monitor vitals (ECG, 6. Internet of Things (IoT)
SpO2). ▪ Smart homes use motion sensors, gas detectors,
▪ Micro-actuators used in insulin pumps, surgical actuators for automation.
robots, prosthetics. ▪ Agricultural systems with humidity sensors and
motorized irrigation.

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Introduction to Human Senses

❑ Humans have FIVE primary senses: Sight, Hearing, Smell, Taste, and Touch.
❑ These senses help in perception, interaction, and decision-making.
❑ Modern sensors aim to replicate or enhance these senses for machines.
❑ Sense of Sight – The Eye vs. Camera Sensors
❑ Human Eye: Detects light, color, motion, depth.
❑ Sensor Equivalent:
❑ Camera (CCD/CMOS) – captures images.
❑ LIDAR/Infrared sensors – measure depth/distance.
❑ Examples:
❑ Self-driving cars use LIDAR and cameras.
❑ Face recognition in smartphones.

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Introduction to Human Senses
Sense of Hearing – Ear vs. Microphones
• Human Ear: Detects sound waves, direction, frequency, and pitch.
• Sensor Equivalent:
• Microphones – convert sound to electrical signals.
• Ultrasonic sensors – detect object distance via sound waves.
• Examples:
• Voice assistants like Alexa or Siri.
• Parking sensors in cars.
Sense of Smell – Nose vs. Gas Sensors
• Human Nose: Detects thousands of odor molecules.
• Sensor Equivalent:
• Gas sensors (e.g., MQ series) – detect specific chemical concentrations.
• Examples:
• Gas leak detectors.
• Electronic noses in food quality monitoring.

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Introduction to Human Senses
Sense of Taste – Tongue vs. Chemical Sensors
• Human Tongue: Detects sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami.
• Sensor Equivalent:
• Electronic tongue (e-tongue) – detects taste profiles using sensors and AI.
• Examples:
• Food and beverage quality testing.
• Pharmaceutical testing.
Sense of Touch – Skin vs. Tactile Sensors
• Human Skin: Sensitive to pressure, temperature, pain, texture.
• Sensor Equivalent:
• Tactile/Pressure sensors – detect force or touch.
• Temperature sensors – measure heat/cold.
• Examples:
• Robotic hands for surgery.
• Touchscreens and haptics in phones.

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Introduction to Human Senses
Bonus Senses – Balance and Proprioception
• Vestibular system – senses balance and acceleration.
• Proprioception – awareness of body position.
• Sensors:
• Accelerometers – measure tilt/movement.
• Gyroscopes – detect rotation.
• Examples:
• Smartphone orientation.
• Drones maintaining stability.

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Summary Table – Human Senses vs. Sensors

Human Sense Sensor Equivalent Example Use

Sight Camera, LIDAR Self-driving cars

Hearing Microphone, Ultrasonic Smart speakers

Smell Gas sensor Industrial safety systems

Taste Electronic tongue Food quality control

Touch Pressure/Temp sensors Prosthetics, touchscreens

Balance Accelerometer, Gyroscope Smartphones, Robots

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Measurements and Control
Measurements
act or process of measuring. Used to tell us the length, the weight, the
temperature, the colour or a change in one of these physical entities of a material

Technique in which the properties of an object are determined by comparing

them to a standard quantity

provides us with means for describing the various physical and chemical
parameters of materials in quantitative terms
Control
• The action to command, direct or regulate a system or a process.
• Manages, commands, directs, or regulates the behavior of the devices or systems or process under desired
performance characteristics
Measurement and Control are tightly coupled techniques. Measurement is the art of using an
instrument to measure the physical quantity and control is used to regulate the process with the
help of measured value.

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Measurement
Measurement

Example
Two requirements which are to be satisfied to
get good result from the measurement.
• The standard must be accurately known and
internationally accepted.
• The apparatus and experimental procedure
adopted for comparison must be provable.

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Measurement – Category and Methods
Measurement categories
Primary Quantity
• Single quantity that is directly measurable
• Ex: Diameter of Cylinder – Vernier Calliper
Derived Quantity
1. Direct or Indirect Method
• quantity of interest needs to be estimated by using an appropriate
relation involving several measured primary quantities. 2. Primary and Secondary Method
• Ex.: determination of acceleration due to gravity using a simple
pendulum 3. Contact or Non – Contact Method

Probe or Intrusive Method

• Insert a Probe into the quantity

Non-Intrusive Method
• Process that doesn’t use insertion. Non-Contact method.

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Measurement – Category and Methods
Direct Measurement Indirect Measurement
• The value of the physical parameter / unknown
• The physical parameters of the quantity are
quantity is determined by comparing it directly
measured by the direct method, and then the
with different standards
numerical value of the quantity is determined by the
• The result of the quantity is expressed in number
mathematical relationship
• Most common method of measuring the physical
• The value of the physical parameter is more
quantities like
generally determined by indirect comparison with
• Mass, length, time, temperature, pressure, etc.
the secondary standards through calibration.
• The length, breadth and height of the substance is
measured by the direct method and then by the help
of the given relation the weight of the substance is
measured as
Weight = Length × Breadth × Height × Density

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Measurement – Category and Methods

Direct Method

Indirect Method

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Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Measurement

Based upon the complexity of the measurement Secondary & Tertiary Measurement.
systems, the measurement is generally grouped into • The indirect measurements involving one
three categories. transmission are called secondary measurements
•Primary •Secondary •Tertiary. • The indirect measurements involving two
Primary measurement: convergent are called tertiary measurements
The sought value of physical parameter is determined by
comparing it directly with reference standards the Examples:
required information is obtained to sense of side and a) The convergent of pressure into displacement by means
touch. of bellows and the convergent of force into displacement.
Example: b) Pressure measurement by manometer and the
a) Matching of two lengths is determining the length of an temperature measurement by mercury in glass tube
object with ruler. thermometer.
b) Estimation the temperature difference between the
c) The measurement of static pressure by boundary tube
components of the container by inserting fingers.
pressure gauge is a typical example of tertiary
c) Measurement of time by counting a number of strokes of a
measurement.
block.
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Measurement System and Its Functional Elements

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Measurement System and Its Functional Elements
Primary sensing element:
❖ Makes the first contact with the measurand (the unknown physical quantity that has to be measured)
and detects it.
❖ This act is followed by the conversion of the measurand into an analogous electrical signal by a
transducer (which converts energy from one form to another).
❖ Also known as a detector transducer stage.

Advantages of electrical transducers

❖ Electrical signals can be amplified, filtered, multiplexed, sampled, and measured.
❖ Can be converted to digital form for analysis and recording.
❖ Can be transmitted over long distances without any loss of information.
❖ High sensitivity, low power consumption, and high reliability.
Bourdon Tube

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Measurement System and Its Functional Elements
Primary sensing element: Diaphragm
Bourdon Tube

Bellow Capsule

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Measurement System and Its Functional Elements

Variable conversion element:

❖ The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any form (voltage, a frequency
or some other electrical parameter).
❖ It may be necessary to convert this output to some other suitable form while preserving the
information content of the original signal.
❖ Example: Analog to digital conversion.
Variable manipulation element:
▪ Manipulate the signal presented to it preserving the original nature of the signal.
▪ Variable manipulation element may even precede variable conversion element.
▪ Example: Amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation.
▪ Non -linear processes like modulation, detection, sampling , filtering, chopping etc., are performed on
the signal to bring it to the desired form to be accepted by the next stage of measurement system
(signal conditioning).
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Measurement System and Its Functional Elements
Data presentation element:
❖ The information about the quantity under measurement is conveyed to the personnel handling the
instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes
❖ For data monitoring, analog or digital indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters are needed
❖ For recording the data, magnetic tapes, high speed camera & TV equipment, CRT, printers may be
used
❖ For control & analysis purpose microprocessor or computers may be used
❖ Final stage is also known as terminating stage
Data transmission element:
▪ Transmit data from one element to another when they are physically separated
▪ Space crafts are separated from earth station. Control signals are sent from earth station to space
craft through a complicated telemetry system

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Measurement System and Its Functional Elements

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Sensor and Transducer

Sensor A sensor is a device that detects or measures a physical quantity and responds
with a readable output.
❖ Collect information about the world. e.g., resistance change, vibration level, voltage variation.
❖ An electrical/mechanical/chemical device that maps an environmental attribute to a quantitative
measurement.
❖ Each sensor is based on a transduction principle - conversion of energy from one form to another.
Transducer
❑ A substance or device, such as a piezoelectric crystal, that converts input energy of one form into
output energy of another.
❑ A device that is actuated by power from one
system and supplies power usually in another form
to a second system (a loudspeaker is a transducer
that transforms electrical signals to sound energy)
(Webster, 3rd ed., 1999)

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Sensor and Transducer

Basics for Sensors Transducers Classification:

Comparison
1. Active / Self Generating
Definition Senses the Physical Converts one form of
changes occurs in the energy into another form.
2. Passive / Modulating
surroundings and converts Mostly into electrical
into a readable form energy
Components Sensing elements Sensing element and Signal
Conditioning element
Function Detect the changes and Conversion of One form of
induces the corresponding energy into another form Passive: requires
electrical signals Active: generates its own
external power to
electric signal and does not
General All sensors are Transducers Not all Transducers are operate
require a power source
Sensors
Example Proximity sensor, Thermistor, Thermocouple,
Accelerometer, Light Potentiometer etc.
Sensor etc..

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Sensor and Transducer - Classification
Contact type: Contact and Non-contact Sensors
❑ Where the sensing element of measuring device has a contact with
medium whose characteristics are being measured.
Non-contact type:
❖ Where the sense doesn’t communicate physically with the medium.
❖ Example: The optical radioactive and some of the electrical/electronic
measurement belong to this category.
Absolute Sensor:
❖ A sensor that reacts to a stimulus on an absolute scale.
Absolute and Relative sensors
❖ Examples: Thermistors, strain gauges, etc., (thermistor will always read the absolute temperature)
Relative Sensor:
❑ The stimulus is sensed relative to a fixed or variable reference.
❑ Thermocouple measures the temperature difference, pressure is often measured relative to
atmospheric pressure.
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Performance Characteristics of a Measurement System

Performance Characteristics / Input Output Characteristics

Static Characteristics Dynamic Characteristics

▪ Relationship between ❖ Range and Span ❑ Dynamic error ▪ Relationship between
system output and ❖ Accuracy and Precision ❑ Fidelity system output and input
input when the ❖ Error ❑ Bandwidth when the measured
measured quantity is quantity is varies rapidly
❖ Repeatability and ❑ Speed of response
remains constant with ▪ Transient Response of
Reproducibility ❑ Time constant
respect to time the System
❖ Sensitivity ❑ Measuring lag
▪ Steady Sate Response
of the System ❖ Resolution ❑ Settling time
❖ Linearity ❑ Dynamic range
❖ Hysteresis
❖ Dead band / Zone
❖ Impedance (Output Impedance)

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Static Characteristics
Range and Span
➢ The region between the limits within which an
instrument is designed to operate for
measurement.
➢ The range is expressed by stating the lower
and upper values
➢ Range -100 C to 100 C

➢ Span represents the algebraic differences

between the upper and lower values of the
Example: a sensors is designed for: -30C to +80 C to
measurement / Instrument
output 2.5V to 1.2V
Range: -30C to +80 C
➢ An Instrument which has the reading range of
Span: 80- (-30)=110 C
-100 C to 100 C has the span of 200 C Input full scale = 110 C
Output full scale = 2.5V-1.2V=1.3V
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Static Characteristics

Accuracy Precision
▪ Closeness to the true value being ❖ How close the measured values are to each
measured other.
▪ Ability of an Instrument to show exact ❖ Capability of a measurement system to
reading produce the same reading each time.
▪ Always related to the extent of the wrong
reading / non accuracy.
▪ Degree to which the result of a
measurement, calculation, or specification
conforms to the correct value or a
standard.

freedom from error

(hitting the same spot, but maybe not the correct spot)

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Static Characteristics

Error Sensitivity
❖ Deviation from “ideal” . ❖ Change in output for a given change in input.
❖ Difference between the result of the ❖ Sensitivity represents the slope of the transfer
measured and true value. function.
❖ Error = Measured – True Value ❖ Often Known as Scale Factor.
❖ Example: if a system gives a temperature ❖ High Sensitivity is desirable.
reading of 25C when the actual is 24C, then
the error is +1 It is the ratio between
the small change in
❖ As a difference: e = V – V0 (V0 is the actual
electrical output to a
value, V is that measured value (the stimulus small change in physical
input signal
in the case of sensors or output in actuators).

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Static Characteristics

Error

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Static Characteristics
Repeatability Resolution
❖ Failure of the sensor or actuator to represent the ❖ Minimum increment in stimulus to which the
same value (i.e. stimulus or input) under identical sensor can respond.
conditions when measured at different times.
❖ Magnitude of the input change which results in
❖ given as the maximum difference between two
readings taken at different times under identical input the smallest observable output.
conditions. ❖ Smaller change in input that can be detected
❖ error given as percentage of input full scale.
by the sensor
❖ In digital systems generally, resolution may be
𝑹𝒑 =
𝑴𝒂𝒙 − 𝑴𝒊𝒏. 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏
∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 specified as 1/ 2N (N is the number of bit.)
𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆

Reproducibility ?

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Static Characteristics
Drift Hysteresis
❑ Undesired change or gradual variation in output ❖ Deviation of the sensor’s output at any given
over a period that is unrelated to the changes in point when approached from two different
directions
output and/or operating conditions
❑ A long-term calibration drift may occur due to ❖ Caused by electrical or mechanical systems
ageing of components ❖ Magnetization
❑ Zero drift is defined as changes in output when ❖ Thermal properties
input is zero ❖ Loose linkages

If temperature is measured, at a rated temperature of

50 °C, the output might be 4.95V when temperature
increases but 5.05V when temperature decreases.

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Static Characteristics

Linearity
▪ Indicates how well an instrument's measurements match reality.
▪ Consistency of measurements over the entire range of measurements
▪ There is a straight-line relationship between “true” analytic
concentrations and measured concentrations.

Non-linearity error using: (a) end-range values, (b) best straight line for all values, (c) best straight line through zero point

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Static Characteristics

Dead Zone Output Impedance

❖ Called a neutral zone or dead zone ❖ Output impedance is defined as the impedance
❖ The lack of response or insensitivity of a
presented to the flow of current from the output side of
device over a specific range of the input.
❖ In this range which may be small, the output an amplifier to the next stage, and it should be as low as
remains constant. possible to allow sufficient current flow.
❖ A device should not operate in this range ❖ Impedance Effect of resistance of electronic circuit to
unless this insensitivity is acceptable. AC.
❖ Whenever an electrical system is interfaced with an
electronic circuit, it is important to match the
impedance of both the systems
❖ Impedance (Z) is the total opposition a circuit presents to
alternating current (AC), combining resistance (R) and
reactance (X) into a single complex quantity, measured in
ohms (Omega)

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Static Characteristics

Stability Tolerance
❖ It is the ability of an instrument to retain its ❖ The maximum allowable error in the
performance throughout its specified measurement is specified in terms of some
operating life. value which is called tolerance

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Example 1

A pressure gauge having a range of 1000 kN/m2 has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 percent of full
scale deflection (i) What would be the possible readings for a true value of 100 kN/m2 ? (ii)
Estimate the possible readings if the instrument has an error of 1 % of the true value.
Solution:
Accuracy = ±1% of full scale
Full scale = 1000 kN/m²
So max error:
(i) True value = 100 kN/m², Therefore, Possible reading:100±10 ⇒ 90 to 110 kN/m2
(ii) error = 1% of true value. That is, Δ=1%×100=1kN/m2
So readings:100±1 ⇒ 99 to 101 kN/m2

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Example 2

A thermometer reads 73.5⁰C and the true value is 73.15⁰C. Determine the absolute error and
relative error.
Solution:
Measured Temperature = 73.5 ⁰C
True Temperature = 73.15 ⁰C

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Example 3

A spring scale requires a change of 15kgf in the applied weight to produce a 2 cm change in
the deflection of the spring scale. Determine the static sensitivity.
Solution:
Given:
Input change = 15 kgf
Output change = 2 cm

Sensitivity

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Example 4

A measuring system consists of a transducer, an amplifier and a recorder, and their individual
sensitivities are stated as follows: Transducer sensitivity K1 = 0.25 mV/ °C, Amplifier gain K2 =
2.5 V/mV, Recorder sensitivity K3 = 4 mm/V. What would be the overall sensitivity of the
measuring system?
Solution:
Given: Overall sensitivity:

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Example 5

A pressure measuring system consists of a piezoelectric transducer, a charge amplifier and a

ultraviolet charge recorder. The sensitivities of these elements are stated as follows:
Piezoelectric transducer, K1 = 8.5 pC/bar Charge amplifier, K2 = 0.004 V/pC Ultraviolet charge
recorder, K3 = 20 mm/V What would be the deflection on the chart due to a pressure change of
30 bar?
Solution:
Given:

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Interfering and Modifying Inputs
Input and Output
❖ Sensors : detects and responds to some type of input from the physical environment
❖ Output is generally a signal that is converted to human-readable display
❖ Input: stimulus or measurand (temperature, pressure, light intensity, etc.)
❖ Output: electrical signal (voltage, current, frequency, phase, etc.)
Interfering Inputs (Y)
❑ The sensor output influenced by
physical variables other than
intended measurand.
❑ The measured signal output is
therefore a combination of X and Y,
with Y interfering with the intended
measurand X.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 47
Interfering and Modifying Inputs

Modifying Inputs (Z)

❖ Modifying inputs changes the behavior of the

sensor or measurement system, thereby
modifying the input/output relationship and
calibration of the device

❖ A common example of a modifying input is

temperature; it is for this reason that many
devices are calibrated at specified
temperatures.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 48

Transfer function

❖ Relation between input and output.

❖ other names:
❖ Input output characteristic function
❖ transfer characteristic function
❖ defined by some kind of mathematical equation and
a descriptive curve or graphical representation in a
given range of inputs and outputs
❖ Linear or nonlinear, single valued or multivalued,
and may at times be very complex.
❖ 𝑺=𝒇 𝒙

Used to determine the characteristics of the

sensor or a measurement system 𝑹 = 𝒂𝑻 + 𝒃
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 49
Dynamic Characteristics
❖ Tells the Behaviour of the system w.r.t time.
❖ Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor
responds to changes in its input.
❖ Describes the transient response of the system.
❖ Response to time varying measurand.
❖ It could be a step input, ramp input or sinusoidal input.

1. Dynamic Error:
❖ Defined as the algebraic difference between the indicated value of the measurand and its true value at any
instant, when the measurand is a function of time.
2. Fidelity
❑ Ability to follow instant by instant variations of the measurand with time
❑ It is defined “as the degree to which a measurement system is capable of faithfully reproducing the changes
in input, without any dynamic error”
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 50
Dynamic Characteristics
3. Bandwidth:
❖ It is the range of frequencies for which its dynamic sensitivity is satisfactory
❖ For measuring systems, dynamic sensitivity is required to be  2% of its static sensitivity
4. Response time
❖ Indicates the time needed for the output to reach steady state (or a given percentage of
steady state) for a step change in input.
❖ Typically, the response time will be given as the time needed to reach 90% of steady state
output upon exposure to a unit step change in input.
5. Time constant
❖ Defined as the time taken by the system to reach 63.2% of its final output signal amplitude
❖ A system having smaller time constant reaches its final output earlier than the one with the
larger time constant and hence possesses the higher speed of response.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 51
Dynamic Characteristics
6. Settling Time
▪ Time taken to settle within 2 – 5 % of the steady state value.
7. Dynamic Range
❖ Ratio of the largest measurable signal to the smallest measurable signal

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 52

Example 6

The dynamic performance of a thermocouple in a protective sheath has been described by the
following differential equation :

𝑑𝜃𝑜
25 + 2.5𝜃𝑜 = 1.25 × 10−5 𝜃𝑖
𝑑𝑡
where θo is the output volts and θi is the input temperature in oC. Determine the time constant
and the static sensitivity of the thermocouple.
Solution:
Given: Thermocouple dynamic equation

04-Dec-2025 BMHA203L - Sensors & Instrumentation 53

Example 7

When a step input of 100 kgf/cm2 is applied to a pressure gauge, the pointer swings to
pressure of 102.5 kgf/cm2 and finally comes to rest at 101.3 kgf/cm2. Determine the overshoot
of the gauge reading and express it as a percentage of the final reading. Also calculate the
percentage error of the gauge.
Solution:
Given: Step input = 100 kgf/cm²
Pointer peak = 102.5 kgf/cm²
Final steady = 101.3 kgf/cm²

04-Dec-2025 BMHA203L - Sensors & Instrumentation 54

Errors - Types

❖ No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy

❖ It is important to find out the accuracy rate and errors occurred

❖ A study of errors is a first step in finding ways to reduce them

Error

Errors are inherent in the measurement

process, or it may be induced due to Limiting
Systematic
(Guarantee) Gross Error Random Error
Error
variations in the way the experiment is Error

conducted.
Instrumental Environmenta Observation
Error l Error Error

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 55

Systematic errors (Bias)
❑ The Systematic errors that occur due to fault in the measuring device are known as systematic errors.
Usually, they are called as Zero Error / a positive or negative error.
❑ These errors can be detached by correcting the measurement device.
❑ These errors may be classified into different categories.
❑ Instrumental Errors
▪ Due to inherent short comings of the instrument
▪ Due to misuse of instruments
❑ Environmental Errors
• These errors are caused due to changes in the environmental conditions in the area
surrounding the instrument
❑ Observational Errors
▪ These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers, which is known as Parallax
error
❑ Theoretical Errors - Theoretical errors are caused by simplification of the model system.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 56
Random error
❑ Random errors are due to non-specific causes like natural An example of the random errors is
disturbances that may occur during the measurement process. during changes in humidity,
These cannot be eliminated.
unexpected change in temperature
❑ These errors are either positive or negative.
and fluctuation in voltage.
❑ due to unknown causes, occur when all systematic error has
accounted Sources of Error
❑ due to accumulation of small effects. To be accounted for high The possible sources of such errors
degree of accuracy. are:
❑ follow law of probability so they are analyzed statically and treated • Small variations in the position of
setting standard and work piece.
mathematically.
• Slight displacement of lever joints
❑ can be avoided by of measuring instruments.
• (a) increasing number of observations • Operator error in scale reading.
• (b) use statistical means to obtain best approximation of true • Fluctuations in the friction of
value measuring instrument etc.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 57

Gross error

❑ Human mistakes in reading instruments and recording

and calculating measurement result.
❑ cannot be treated mathematically
❑ cannot be eliminated but can be minimized

Example:
❖ The temperature is 31.5C, but it will write as 21.5C
❖ This can be avoided by adopting two means
1. Great care should be taken in reading and
recording the data
2. Two three ( even more readings should be taken
for quantity under measurement

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 58

Comparison between Systematic Errors and Random
Errors
Systematic Errors Random Errors
Repeatable and predictable errors. Unpredictable errors that vary in magnitude and direction.

Caused by calibration errors, improper instrument Caused by electrical noise, vibration, temperature
adjustment, environmental influences, or observational fluctuations, and other uncontrollable variations.
bias.
Produce a consistent bias in the measurement. Cause measurements to scatter around the true value.

Can usually be identified, calibrated, and corrected. Cannot be eliminated completely but can be reduced by
repeated measurements and statistical averaging.

Mean value shifts away from the true value. Thus, affects Measurements scatter around the true value. Thus,
accuracy affects precision
Reduced by calibration Reduced by averaging multiple readings

Examples: calibration error, zero error, parallax error, Examples: electrical noise, thermal fluctuations, observer
misalignment, hysteresis, backlash, friction. estimation, air turbulence, supply voltage fluctuations,
vibration.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 59
Calibration

❑ Calibration is the process of comparing the measurements from an instrument or sensor to

a known standard or reference.
❑ Calibration is crucial to address both systematic and random errors.
❑ Calibration of all instruments is important since it affords the opportunity to check the
instruments against a known standard and subsequently to find errors and accuracy.
❑ Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the particular instrument with either
▪ a Primary standard
▪ a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated.
▪ an instrument of known accuracy.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 60

Calibration
❑ For example, Bourdon tube pressure gauge measures pressure in a system (e.g. hydraulic or
pneumatic). Drift in pressure reading (reading high or low) than actual pressure due to wear or
environmental factors such as elastic deformation or material fatigue of the tube and worn or
loose mechanical linkages.
❑ Calibration procedure: The gauge is connected to a dead-weight tester (standard used for pressure
calibration).
❑ Dead-Weight Tester: A highly accurate instrument that applies a known
weight on a piston to generate a precise pressure, serving as the reference
standard.
Calibration process:
❑ Apply specific pressure using the dead-weight tester.
❑ Compare the gauge reading with the known pressure from the dead-weight
tester.
❑ Record deviations, adjust the gauge if necessary, or document corrections.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 61
Calibration
One-Point Calibration
❖ If your sensor output is already scaled to useful measurement units, a one-point calibration can be
used to correct for sensor offset errors in the following cases:
▪ Only one measurement point is needed.
▪ The sensor is known to be linear and have the correct slope over the desired measurement range.
Two-Point Calibration
❖ A Two-Point calibration
essentially re-scales the output
and is capable of correcting both
slope and offset errors.
❖ Two-point calibration can be used
in cases where the sensor output
is known to be reasonably linear
over the measurement range.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 62

Calibration

Zero Calibration:
❖The sensor is exposed to a zero-level input in zero calibration, and any output is corrected as it
represents the sensor’s inherent offset or bias.
❖For example, a temperature sensor might be placed in a melting ice bath, and a pressure sensor might
be exposed to a vacuum, corresponding to 0°C and 0Pa. Zero must be the ideally resulting output, and
any deviation from this is corrected as an offset error.
Span Calibration:
❖After zero calibration, span calibration is conducted by exposing the sensor to a known and highest
level of the measurand.
❖Ensuring that the sensor reads correctly across its entire range, the output is then scaled so that it
correctly displays this maximum input level.
❖For instance, after undergoing a zero calibration at the melting point of ice, a temperature sensor may
then be calibrated at the boiling point of water.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 63
Calibration

Multi-Point Curve Fitting Calibration

❖ Sensors that are not linear over the measurement
range require some curve-fitting to achieve
accurate measurements over the measurement
range.
❖A common case requiring curve-fitting is
thermocouples at extremely hot or cold
temperatures.
❖ While nearly linear over a fairly wide range, they
do deviate significantly at extreme temperatures.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 64

Practice Problems

Question-1:
A packaging unit uses an electronic weighing scale to pack 1 kg pouches. The scale shows
+15 g when no load is applied, gives varying readings for the same load, and shows different
readings during loading and unloading for the same weight.
(a) Identify the static characteristics involved and relate them to the observations.
(b) Classify the errors in given scenario with justification.
(c) Suggest suitable calibration/correction methods to reduce these errors.
(d) Which static characteristic is most critical for packaging quality? Justify.
Question-2:
A pressure gauge peaks at 102.5 kgf/cm² and settles at 101.3 kgf/cm² after a step input. Find
overshoot and error, then analyze how this affects safety in high-pressure boiler automation.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 65
Practice Problems

Question-3:
A pressure sensor with a range of 0 to 200 bar is used in a hydraulic circuit. During testing, the
following data is recorded:
❖ Observation 1: At a constant true pressure of 100 bar, the sensor output consistently reads
102.5 bar.
❖ Observation 2: When the pressure is increased from 0 to 50 bar, the reading is 50.2 bar;
when decreased from 100 to 50 bar, the reading is 51.8 bar.
❖ Observation 3: Rapid fluctuations are noted in the display even when the input pressure is
held perfectly stable.
Analyze these observations to calculate/identify the Absolute Error, Hysteresis Error, and the
nature of Random Error. Suggest a strategy to compensate for the systematic bias identified.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 66
Practice Problems
Question 4:
A digital weighing system used in a packaging unit exhibits the following behavior:
❑ Condition I: +10 g when no load is applied
❑ Condition II: Slight variation of ±1 g for the same load
❑ Condition III: Different readings during loading and unloading for the same weight
(i) Identify the static characteristics involved and explain them with respect to the observations.
(ii) Classify the types of errors present with justification.
(iii) Suggest appropriate calibration and correction methods to reduce these errors.
Question-5:
A digital thermometer used in a lab displays 0.5 °C when placed in an ice bath at 0 °C. When
repeated ten times, it gives values ranging from 0.45 °C to 0.55 °C. Identify the static
characteristics and explain them using these observations.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 67

A Brief history of standards

❑ King Henry-I declared that a yard should be the distance from the tip of his
nose to the end of his out stitched thumb.
❑ The length of a furlong (or furrow – long) was established as 220 yards.
❑ In 16th century, Queen Elizabeth I declared that henceforth the traditional
roman mile of 5000 feet would be replaced by one of 5280 feet, making the
mile exactly eight furlongs and providing a convenient relationship between
the furlong and the mile. England by the 18th century had achieved a
greater degree of standardization than other European countries.
❑ The constitution of the U.S. gave the power to fire uniform standards for
weights and measure to congress. Today, standards supplied to all the
states by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) ensures
uniformity through the country. King Henry-I
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 68
Standard
Definition

Standard is commonly agreed and accepted quantity/quality for the given unit by a group of
people or a society

It is the definition/meaning of the unit

Need for Standard

To represent the result of To understand the To communicate the result of

measurement completely result of measurement measurement to others

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 69

Standard Organizations
CGPM: General Conference on Weights and Measures
(CGPM, Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures).
CGPM is the primary intergovernmental treaty organization responsible for the SI, representing nearly 50 countries.
It has the responsibility of ensuring that the SI is widely disseminated and modifying it as necessary so that it reflects
the latest advances in science and technology.

CIPM: International Committee for Weights and Measures

(CIPM, Comité International des Poids et Mesures).
CIPM comes under the authority of the CGPM. It suggests modifications to the SI to the CGPM for formal adoption.
The CIPM may also on its own authority to pass clarifying resolutions and recommendations regarding the SI.

BIPM: International Bureau of Weights and Measures

(BIPM, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures)

BIPM, located outside Paris, has the task of ensuring worldwide unification of physical measurements. It is the
"international" metrology institute, and operates under the exclusive supervision of the CIPM.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 70

Measurement Units
❖ The SI units are classified into two classes as follows:
▪ Base units
▪ Derived units

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SI Unit rules and style conventions
General
❑ Only units of the SI and those units recognized for use with the SI are used to express the values of
quantities. Equivalent values in other units are given in parentheses following values in acceptable units
only when deemed necessary for the intended audience.
Abbreviations
❖ Abbreviations such as sec, cc, or mps are avoided and only standard unit symbols, prefix symbols, unit
names, and prefix names are used.
❖ Proper: s or second; cm3 or cubic centimeter; m/s or meter per second
❖ Improper: sec; cc; mps
Plurals
❑ Unit symbols are unaltered in the plural.
❑ Proper: l = 75 cm
❑ Improper: l = 75 cms

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SI Unit rules and style conventions
Punctuation
❑ Unit symbols are not followed by a period unless at the end of a sentence.
❑ Proper:
• The length of the bar is 75 cm.
• The bar is 75 cm long.
❑ Improper:
• The bar is 75 cm. long
Multiplication & division
❑ Proper: The speed of sound is about 344 m·s-1 (meters per second)
• The decay rate of 113Cs is about 21 ms-1 (reciprocal milliseconds)
• m/s, m·s-2, m·kg/(s3·A), m·kg·s-3·A-1
• m/s, m s-2, m kg/(s3 A), m kg s-3 A-1
❑ Improper:
• The speed of sound is about 344 ms-1 (reciprocal milliseconds)
• The decay rate of 113Cs is about 21 m·s-1 (meters per second)
• m ÷ s, m/s/s, m·kg/s3/A
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 73
SI Unit rules and style conventions
Typeface
❑ Proper:
• He exclaimed, "The Monkey weighs 10 kg!"
• t = 3 s, where t is time and s is second
• T = 22 K, where T is thermodynamic temperature, and K is kelvin
❑ Improper:
• He exclaimed, "The Monkey weighs 10 kg!”
• t = 3 s, where t is time and s is second
• T = 22 K, where T is thermodynamic temperature, and K is kelvin
Unit modifications
❑ Proper: Vmax = 1000 V
• a mass fraction of 10 %
❑ Improper: V= 1000 Vmax
• 10 % (m/m) or 10 % (by weight)
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 74
SI Unit rules and style conventions
Information& units Math notation
❑ Information is not mixed with unit symbols or ❑ Proper:
• 35 cm x 48 cm
names. • 1 MHz to 10 MHz or (1 to 10) MHz
❑ Proper: the water content is 20 mL/kg • 20 °C to 30 °C or (20 to 30) °C
❑ Improper: • 123 g ± 2 g or (123 ± 2) g
• 20 mL H2O/ kg • 70 % ± 5 % or (70 ± 5) %
• 240 x (1 ± 10 %) V
• 20 mL of water/ kg
❖ Improper:
Unit symbols & names • 35 x 48 cm
❑Proper: • 1 MHz-10 MHz or 1 to 10 MHz
• kg/m3, kg · m-3, or kilogram per cubic meter • 20 °C-30 °C or 20 to 30 °C
• 123 ± 2 g
❑Improper:
• 70 ± 5 %
• kilogram/m3, kg/cubic meter, kilogram/cubic • 240 V ± 10 % (one cannot add 240 V and
meter, kg per m3, or kilogram per meter3. 10 %)

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SI Unit rules and style conventions
Unit spacing Numerals & unit symbols
❑ Proper:
❑ Proper:
• a 25 kg sphere
• an angle of 2° 3’ 4" • m = 5 kg
• If the spelled-out name of a unit is used, the normal rules • The current was 15 A
of ❑ Improper:
• English apply: "a roll of 35-millimeter film." • m = five kilograms
❑ Improper:
• a 25-kg sphere • m = five kg
• an angle of 2 ° 3 ’ 4 “ • The current was 15 amperes
Digit spacing
❖ Proper:
• 15 739.012 53
❖ Improper:
• 15739.01253
• 15,739.012 53
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 76
SI Unit rules and style conventions

Quantity equations
❑ Proper: (l/m) = 3.6-1 [v/(km/h)](t/s)
❑ Improper: l = 3.6-1 vt, accompanied by text saying,
❑ "where l is in meters, v is in kilometers per second, and t is in seconds“

Standard Symbols Object & quantity

❑ Proper: ❖ An object and any quantity describing the object
• tan x are distinguished.
• R for resistance ❖ Proper: A body of mass 5 g
• Ar for relative atomic mass ❖ Improper: A mass of 5 g
❖ Improper:
• tg x for tangent of x
• words, acronyms, or ad hoc groups of letters

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 77

Classification of Standards
International Standards
❑ International standards are defined by international agreement. These standards are maintained at
the international Bureau of Weights and Measurers in Paris and are periodically evaluated and
checked by absolute measurements in terms of fundamental units.
Primary standards
❖ Primary standards are maintained at national standard laboratories in different countries. The
principal function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of secondary standards.
Primary standards are absolute standards of such high accuracy that they can be used as the
ultimate reference standard.
Secondary standards
❖ Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration
laboratories in industries. Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standards to national
standard laboratory for calibration.
Working standards
❖ Working standards are used to check and calibrate the instruments used in laboratory.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 78
Transducer - Introduction

❖ Electrical and Electronic systems need to sense and react with the real world either by:
▪ Reading sensing an input quantity, or:
▪ Activating actuating some form of output devices.
Sensor:
❖ Device that measures/detects a signal or stimulus to acquire information from the real world.
Actuator:
❑ Device that generates a signal or stimulus to affect the state of the real world.
Transducer
❖ It is a collective word used for both sensors and actuators.
❖ It is a device that converts a form of energy into a different form of energy.

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Transducer - Introduction

❖ Transducer = any device which covert energy from one form to another.
Deal with different types of energies:
▪ Mechanical,
▪ Electrical energy,
▪ Light energy,
▪ Chemical energy,
▪ Thermal energy,
▪ Acoustic energy,
▪ Electromagnetic energy and so on.

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Generalized structure of transducers

❖ Incorporate two subsystems:

▪ sensing element
▪ transduction system

Sensing Transduction Electrical

Measurand
Element Subsystem Signal

❑ In case of sensor, sensing element detects and reproduces the physical variable

❑ e.g. thermocouple is used to generate a voltage corresponding to the heat that is generated
at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

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Transducers – Classification

Transducers

Based on Characteristics Based on Working Principle Based on Quantity to be measure

Resistive Displacment
Active and Passive
Transducer Transducer
Indcutive
Analog and Digital Force Transducer
Transducer
Primary and Capactitive
Pressure Transducer
Secondary Transducer
Transducer and Miscellaneous Temperature
Inverse Transducer Transdcuer Transducer

Flow Transducer

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 82

Transducers – Classification
Passive Transducers
Photovoltaic
Variable Resistance Opto Electronic Variable Reactance

Thermoelectric
Photo Photo
Active Transducers Inductive Capacitive
Conductors emissive
Piezoelectric
Photo Variable Variable
Strain Gauge
Junctions Reluctance Area
Electromagnetic
Variable Variable
Thermistor
Permeability Separation

Variable
LVDT Permittivity

Eddy
Current

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Resistive transducers

❖ The resistive transducers are also known as resistive sensors or variable resistance
transducers.

❖ These transducers are most frequently used for calculating different physical quantities like
pressure, vibration, temperature, force, and displacement.

❖ These transducers work in both primary as well as secondary.

❖ The primary transducer converts the physical quantities to a mechanical signal whereas the
secondary transducer converts to an electrical signal directly.

❖ But generally, these are used as secondary because the primary transducer’s output can
work as an input to the resistive transducer.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 84

What is Resistive Transducer?

❖ The variable resistance transducer elements work on the principle that the resistance of the
conductor is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to
the area of the conductor.

❑ If L is the length of the conductor (m) and A is its area (m2)

as shown in Fig.16.1, then its resistance R (ohms) is given
by:

R = ρL/A
❑ where ρ is called as resistivity of the material measured in
ohm-m and it is constant for the given material. Resistance element

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Resistive Transducer Circuit

❑ The resistive transducer consists of a long conductor whose

length can be varied with time.
❑ One end of the conductor is connected while the other end is
connected to a brush or a slider that can freely move along
the length of the transducers.
❑ We can calculate the distance of the object by connecting the
object to the slider of the resistive transducer.
❑ Whenever we apply energy to the object to displace it from its initial position, the slider will
move along the length of the conductor as a result of which the length will change.
❑ The change in the length of the conductor will cause the resistance of the conductor to
change as well.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 86
Types of resistive transducers

❖ The major types of resistive transducer include potentiometers, resistive position

transducers, resistive pressure transducers, thermistors, strain gauges, and Light
dependent resistor (LDR).
Sliding contact devices
❖ In the sliding contact type of variable
resistance transducers, there is a long
conductor whose effective length is variable.

❖ One end of the conductor is fixed, while the

position of the other end is decided by the
slider or the brush that can move along the
Sliding contact type of variable resistance element
whole length of the conductor.
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Sliding contact devices
❖ The slider is connected to the body whose displacement is to be
measured.
❖ When the body moves the slider also moves along the conductor
so its effective length changes, due to which it resistance also
changes.
❖ The effective resistance is measured as the resistance between
the fixed position of the conductor and the position of the sliding
contact.
❖ The value of the resistance is calibrated against the input quantity,
whose value can be measured directly.
❖ One of most popular sliding contact type of variable resistance
transducer is the potentiometer.
❖ These devices can be used to measured translational as well as
angular displacement. Rotational potentiometer

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Wire resistance strain gauge

❖ The strain gauge is a fine wire which changes its electric resistance, when mechanically
strained.
❖ When an electrical conductor is stretched
within the limits of its elasticity such that it
does not break or permanently deform, it will
become narrower and longer, changes that
increase its electrical resistance end-to-end.
❖ Conversely, when a conductor is
compressed such that it does not buckle, it
will broaden and shorten in size, the
changes that decrease its electrical
resistance end-to-end.
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Applications of Resistive Transducer

❑ The applications of resistive transducer include potentiometer, resistance thermometer, strain

gauges, thermistor, etc.
❑ The best examples of this transducer are potentiometers like rotator & translation. The resistance of
these can be changed with the deviation within their lengths to measure the displacement.
❑ The semiconductor material’s resistance can be changed when the strain happens on it. This
property can be used to measure force, displacement, and pressure, etc.
❑ The metal’s resistance can be changed due to temperature change. So this property can be used to
calculate the temperature.
❑ The working principle of this is the thermistor materials temperature coefficient can be changed by the
temperature. The temperature coefficient of the thermistor is negative which means this is inversely
proportional to resistance.

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Advantages & Disadvantages

The main advantages of the resistive transducer are as follows:

❖ The resistive transducer can be used to give very quick results.
❖ The resistive transducers are available in various sizes and they have a considerably high amount of
resistance.
❖ We can use both AC or DC for calculating the change in resistance.
❖ They are quite affordable and can be easily available in the market.
❖ W can use this transducer in various applications even when they are not a necessity.
❖ It can be used to give accurate results.
Some of the major disadvantages of resistive transducers are:
❑ A lot of power is wasted in moving the sliding contacts.
❑ The sliding contacts can produce a lot of noise.

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Example 1

The EMF (E) across a 4.7 kΩ resistor is 9 V. How much current is flowing and what is the
power dissipation?
Solution: Given emf across a 4.7 kΩ resistor is 9 V
Current

Power dissipation

I≈1.92mA, P≈17.2mW

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Capacitive Transducer

❖ Capacitive Transducer is a device which changes its capacitance with change in the
physical phenomena (displacement, force, pressure etc.) to be measured.
❖ It is a passive transducer which required external source of supply to function.
❖ The transduction element of capacitive transducer is a capacitor which may be a parallel
plate, cylindrical or angular capacitor.
❖ It is commonly used for the measurement
of linear displacement.

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Working Principle of Capacitive Transducer

❖ The working principle of capacitive transducer is based on the capacitance of parallel plate
capacitor.
❖ The capacitance (C) of a parallel plate capacitor with plate area A separated by distance d is
given as below.
C = ƐoƐrA / d ………….(1)

❖ Where Ɛo and Ɛr are the permittivity of

free space and the relative
permittivity of the dielectric material of
capacitor.

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Working Principle of Capacitive Transducer

❑ A capacitor consists of two conductors (plates) that are electrically isolated from one another
by a nonconductor (dielectric).
❑ When the two conductors are at different potentials (voltages), the system is capable of
storing an electric charge.
❑ The storage capability of a capacitor is measured in farads.
❑ The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the equation for
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

where, A = Overlapping area of plates (in m2),

D = Distance between two plates (in m),
ε = Permittivity (dielectric constant in F/m)
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Working Principle of Capacitive Transducer

❖ The capacitive transduce works on the principle that the capacitance can be varied by varying the
following:
▪ Area of plate
▪ Separation between the plates
▪ Changing the dielectric material between the plates
❖ In most of the cases the above changes are caused by the physical variables, such as, displacement,
force or pressure.
❖ Variation in capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the plates changes, as in
the case of measurement of liquid or gas levels.
❖ Therefore, the capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear displacement, by
employing these following effects.

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Working Principle of Capacitive Transducer

Variable capacitive transducer

varies; (a) area of overlap, (b)
distance between plates, (c) amount
of dielectric between plates

Differential capacitive
transducer varies capacitance
ratio by changing: (a) area of
overlap, (b) distance between
plates, (c) dielectric between
plates

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Working Principle of Capacitive Transducer
Transducers Using Change in Area of Plates
❖ Examining the equation for capacitance, it is found that the capacitance is directly proportional to the
area, A of the plates.
❖ Thus, the capacitance changes linearly with change in area of plates. Hence this type of capacitive
transducer is useful for measurement of moderate to large displacements say from 1 mm to several
cm. The area changes linearly with displacement and also the capacitance.
❖ For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is:

❖ The sensitivity is constant and therefore there is linear relationship

between capacitance and displacement.
❖ This type of a capacitive transducer is suitable for measurement of linear displacement ranging from 1
to 10 cm. The accuracy is as high as 0.005%
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Working Principle of Capacitive Transducer

Transducers Using Change in Distance between Plates

❑ One plate is fixed and the displacement to be measured is applied to the other plate which is
movable.
❑ Since, the capacitance, C, varies inversely as the distance d, between the plates the response of this
transducer is not linear. Thus this transducer is useful only for measurement of extremely small
displacements.

❑ Thus the sensitivity of this type of transducer is not constant but

varies over the range of the transducer.
❑ The relationship between variations of capacitance with variation of
distance between plates is hyperbolic and is only approximately
linear over a small range of displacement.
❑ The linearity can be closely approximated by use of a piece of dielectric material like mica having a
high dielectric constant, such as, a thin piece of mica.
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Working Principle of Capacitive Transducer

Transducers Using Change in dielectric constant between Plates

❖ If the area (A) of and the distance (d) between the plates of a capacitor remain constant, capacitance
will vary only as a function of the dielectric constant (ε) of the substance filling the gap between the
plates.
❖ If the space between the plates of a capacitor is filled with an insulator, the capacitance of the
capacitor will change compared to the situation in which there is vacuum between the plates.
❖ The change in the capacitance is caused by a change in the electric field between the plates.

Change in capacitance due to movement of dielectric between plates

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Advantages of Capacitive Transducer

❖ The major advantages of capacitive transducer are listed below:

▪ This transducer requires very small force to operate and hence utilized in small systems.
▪ They are very sensitive. The accuracy is as good as 0.005%.
▪ The loading effect is minimum in this transducer due to high input impedance.
▪ A resolution of the order of 2.5×10-3 can easily be obtained using these transducers.
▪ Measurement of Inductive Transducer is affected by the stray magnetic field whereas a
capacitive transducer is not affected.
▪ The power requirement of capacitive transducer is less as they require less force to operate.

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Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducer
❖ The principle disadvantages of a capacitive transducer are mentioned below:
✓ Capacitive Transducer requires its metallic part to be insulated from each other. If they get short,
the value of capacitance will become zero. Above all, to avoid the effect of stray capacitance on
the measurement, the frame of this transducer must be earthed.
✓ The Capacitive Transducer shows non-linear behavior may a times because of the effect of
edges. Guard rings are used to eliminate this effect.
✓ The cable connecting to the transducer is also a source of error when measuring small physical
changes. The cable may be source of loading resulting in loss of sensitivity. Also loading makes
the low frequency response poor.
✓ The capacitance may change due to dust, moisture etc.
✓ They are temperature sensitive and therefore, any change in temperature adversely affects their
performance.
✓ The instrumentation circuitry used with capacitive transducer is quite complex.

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Application of Capacitive Transducer
❖ Capacitive Transducer is mostly used for the measurement of linear and angular displacement.
They are very sensitive and can measure extremely small displacement of the order of 10-6 mm.
❖ They are also used for the measurement of force and pressure. Force and pressure are first
converted into linear displacement and then the displacement is measured by capacitive
transducer.
❖ Capacitive Transducer can be directly used for pressure measurement where change in
pressure results in corresponding change in dielectric constant of medium between the plates of
capacitor.
❖ Dielectric constant of gases changes with humidity. Therefore, a capacitive transducer can
measure the humidity in gases by employing the change in capacitance due to change in
dielectric constant principle.
❖ It can also be used to measure liquid level, volume, density etc. However, a mechanical modifier
is required for the measurement of these parameters.

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Example 1

What is the capacitance between two parallel plates whose areas are 1 m2 separated by a 1
mm thick piece of dielectric with a dielectric constant of 5.5 x10-9 F/m?
Solution:
Given:
Area 𝐴 =1 𝑚2
Separation d =1mm=10−3m
Permittivity (given) ϵ = 5.5×10−9F/m
Capacitance:

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Practice Problems

Question-1:

A parallel plate capacitive sensor has plates of area 200 mm2 separated by a 2 mm air gap.
(Take permittivity of free space as 8.854×10-12 F/m). Calculate

(i) initial capacitance, and

(ii) change in capacitance if the gap decreases by 0.5 mm.

(iii) comment on the effect of gap reduction on sensor sensitivity.

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Inductive Transduction
❑ Inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in the
electric current flowing through it. The flow of electric current creates a magnetic
field around the conductor. The field strength depends on the magnitude of the
current, and follows any changes in current.
❑ From Faraday's law of induction, any change in magnetic field through a circuit
induces an electromotive force (EMF) (voltage) in the conductors, a process
known as electromagnetic induction.
❑ This induced voltage created by the changing current has the effect of opposing the change in
current. This is stated by Lenz's law, and the voltage is called back EMF.
❑ If a time varying current flowing through a coil there is an EMF induced in it. The induced EMF across
the coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of current with respect to time.
❑ The induced EMF across a coil is directly proportional to the rate of
change of current through it.
❑ The proportionality constant in that relation is known as inductance.

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Types of Induction
❖ There are two types of Induction:
(a) self induction and (b) mutual induction
(a) Self Induction
❑ When time varying current flows in a coil the time varying
flux is produced and this varying flux will link with that coil
itself and as a result there will be EMF induced in the coil
itself. This type of Induction is called self induction.
❑ The inductance of a coil or inductor due to its own
current is called self inductance.
❑ When the armature of the circuit is moved, the air gap
between the magnetic materials and the permeability of
the flux produced in the circuit changes. This results in a
change of the inductance in the circuit. Self Induction

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Types of Induction
(b) Mutual Induction
❑ When time varying current flows in a coil it
produces time varying flux as we have
already told.
❑ This time varying flux may link with another
nearby coil.
❑ Due to this flux linkage there will be an
induced EMF in the second coil.
❑ This type of electrical induction is called
mutual induction.
❑ Hence mutual induction can be defined as the induction of emf in one coil due to time
varying current flowing in any other nearby coil. Inductance of a coil due to current in
another nearby coil is called mutual inductance
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Inductive Transducer Working Principle

❖ Inductive transducers work on the principle

of inductance change due to any
appreciable change in the quantity to be
measured.
❖ Generally, inductive transducers works on
the principle of change in self-inductance of
one coil, change in mutual inductance of
two-coils and eddy current production.
❖ The voltage difference and change in
inductance results due to the change in flux
in the coils (secondary or primary coils)
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Change of Self Inductance of Inductive Transducer
❑ Self inductance of a coil is given by
where, N = number of turns and R = reluctance of the magnetic circuit.

❑ Also we know that reluctance R is given by:

where, μ = effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil

G = A/l and called the geometric form factor.
A = area of cross-section of the coil, and l = length of the coil.
We can vary self inductance by
▪ Change in number of turns, N,
▪ Changing geometric configuration, G,
▪ Changing permeability
For the sake of understanding we can say that if the displacement is to be measured by the inductive
transducers, it should change any of the above parameter for causing in the change in self inductance.
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Change of Self Inductance of Inductive Transducer

(a) Change in Self Inductance with Numbers of Turns

❑ The output may be caused by a change in the number
of turns.
❑ In both cases, as the number of turns are changed, the
self inductance and the output also changes.

(b) Change in Self Inductance with Change in Permeability

❖ The iron core is surrounded by a winding.
❖ If the iron core is inside the winding, its permeability is
increased, and so is the inductance.
❖ When the iron core is moved out of the winding, the
permeability decreases, resulting in a reduction of the
self inductance of the coil.
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Change of Mutual Inductance of Inductive Transducer

❖ These transducers, which work on change of mutual inductance principle, use multiple coils.
❖ We use here two coils for the sake of understanding. Both coils have their self-inductance as
well. So let’s denote their self-inductance by L1 and L2.
❖ Mutual inductance between these two coils is given by
❖ Thus mutual inductance can be changed by varying self inductance or by varying coefficient of
coupling, K.
❖ Now coefficient of coupling depends on the distance and orientation between two coils.
❖ Thus for the measurement of displacement we can fix one coil and make other movable which
moves with the source whose displacement is to be measured.
❖ With the change in distance in displacement coefficient of coupling changes and it causes the
change in mutual inductance.
❖ This change in mutual inductance can be calibrated with the displacement and measurement
can be done.
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Production of Eddy Current of Inductive Transducer
❑ When a conducting plate is placed near a coil carrying
alternating current, a circulating current is induced in the
plate called “EDDY CURRENT”.
❑ This principle is used in such type of inductive
transducers.
❑ When a coil is placed near to coil carrying alternating
current, a circulating current is induced in it which in turn
produces its own flux which try to reduce the flux of the
coil carrying the current and hence inductance of the coil
changes
❖ Nearer the plate is to the coil, higher will be eddy current and higher is the reduction in inductance
and vice versa.
❖ Thus inductance of coil varied with the variation of distance between coil and plate.
❖ Thus the movement of the plate can be calibrated in terms of inductance change to measure the
quantity like displacement
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Inductive Transducer

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Inductive Transducers

Advantages
❖ Inductive transducers can withstand adverse environmental conditions like temperature,
humidity, etc. It can perform in an industrial environment.
❖ This transducer has good accuracy and is considered to be stable in operation with a good
life span.
❖ It can be subjected to a high switching rate as is required in industrial applications.
❖ Inductive transducers are available in wide ranges and can be used in several applications.

Disadvantages
❑ The shape/composition of the armature (metal to be sensed) plays a role in selecting the
transducer. Some times it has to be almost tailor-made.
❑ The inductive transducer will work only for metallic (magnetic) material.

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Applications of Inductive Transducers

❖ Inductive transducers find very wide applications in the industry some of the common
applications are given here.

❖ The most common application of inductive transducer is as proximity switch/sensor which is

used in vital equipment as safety devices like cranes, elevators, etc.

❖ These transducers are also used in process plants to perform programmed sequential
functions and counters.

❖ In monitoring the medical condition of patients, the inductive transducer plays a very
important role. As they find use in PB monitors, heart monitors, stethoscope, etc.

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Example 1

A coil with a diameter of 0.5 m and length 0.7 m is wound with 100 turns of wire, what is its
inductance if the material of the core has a permeability of 7.5 x10-7 H/m?
Solution:
Given:
Diameter = 0.5 m → radius r = 0.25m Inductance:
Area A=πr2=π(0.25)2=0.1963m2
Length l=0.7m
Turns N=100
Permeability μ=7.5×10−7H/m

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Piezoelectric Transduction
❖ Piezoelectric transduction is the process where certain materials convert mechanical energy (like
pressure, force, vibration) into electrical energy (voltage/charge), and vice versa, using the piezoelectric
effect.
❖ Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in response to applied
mechanical stress.
❖ Piezoelectric transducers use this affect to act as:
❖ Sensors for measuring physical quantities such as force, pressure, acceleration, or
❖ Actuators that generate mechanical motion from electrical signals.
❖ These devices are widely used in accelerometers and microphones to medical ultrasound systems.
❖ The piezoelectric transducer uses the piezoelectric material which has a special property, i.e. the material
induces voltage when the pressure or stress applied to it.
❖ The material which shows such property is known as the electro-resistive element.
❖ Piezoelectric transducer It is also known as inverse transducer.

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Piezoelectric Transducer - Working
❖ Step 1: Application of mechanical stress: External pressure / force is applied to the
quartz crystal. Stress may be compressive, tensile, or shear.
❖ Step 2: Lattice deformation : The crystal lattice undergoes elastic deformation. Atoms
shift slightly from their original positions. Important point: Positive and negative ions do
NOT move equally
❖ Step 3: Charge center displacement: Oxygen ions (O²⁻) shift more than silicon ions
(Si⁴⁺). The center of negative charge shifts relative to the positive charge center. This
creates electric dipoles inside the crystal.
❖ Step 4: Dipole alignment: Millions of microscopic dipoles form and align in a specific
direction. Their effects add cumulatively.
❖ Step 5: Surface charge generation: One face of the quartz crystal becomes positively
charged,. The opposite face becomes negatively charged
❖ Step 6: Voltage generation: Electrodes collect surface charges. An electric field is
established. A measurable voltage appears across the crystal terminals.
𝑉 ∝ Applied stress
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Piezoelectric Transducer

❖ The stress-strain relationship gives the relationship between the force F and the change in
the crystal thickness t.

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Piezoelectric Transducer Advantages

The advantages of piezoelectric transducers are:

❖ No need for an external force.
❖ Easy to handle and use as it has small dimensions.
❖ High-frequency response it means the parameters change very rapidly.

The disadvantages of piezoelectric transducers are:

❑ It is not suitable for measurement in static condition.
❑ It is affected by temperatures.
❑ The output is low so some external circuit is attached to it.
❑ It is very difficult to give the desired shape to this material and also desired strength.

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Application of Piezoelectric Materials
❑ In microphones, the sound pressure is converted into an electric signal and this signal is ultimately
amplified to produce a louder sound.
❑ Automobile seat belts lock in response to a rapid deceleration is also done using a piezoelectric
material.
❑ It is also used in medical diagnostics.
❑ It is used in electric lighter used in kitchens. The pressure made on piezoelectric sensor creates an
electric signal which ultimately causes the flash to fire up.
❑ They are used for studying high-speed shock waves and blast waves.
❑ Used infertility treatment (Piezo-ICSI – a new way of fertilising eggs).
❑ Used in Inkjet printers
❑ It is also used in restaurants or airports where when a person steps near the door and the door opens
automatically. In this, the concept used is when a person is near the door pressure is exerted person
weight on the sensors due to which the electric effect is produced and the door opens automatically.

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Piezoresistive Transduction
❖ Piezoresistive transduction is a sensing mechanism in which mechanical stress or strain is converted
into an electrical signal through a change in the electrical resistance of a material.
❖ This resistance change, which occurs when the material is subjected to tension or compression, is
known as the piezoresistive effect.
❖ This resistance change occurs due to variations in length,
cross-sectional area, and resistivity of the material under
stress.
❖ The effect is much stronger in semiconductors than in
metals, because strain significantly changes charge
carrier mobility and concentration in semiconductor
materials.
❖ This principle is widely used in strain gauges, pressure
sensors, force sensors, and accelerometers.
❖ The change in resistance is typically measured using precision circuits such as a Wheatstone bridge,
allowing very small resistance changes to be converted into measurable voltage signals.
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Piezoresistive Transducer - Working
❖ A strain gauge is a highly sensitive electromechanical sensor that converts very small mechanical
deformations (tensile or compressive strain) into a measurable electrical signal.
❖ Two primary types of strain gauges exist:
▪ Metallic (foil or wire) strain gauges
▪ Semiconductor (piezoresistive) strain gauges.
❖ Metallic strain gauges operate on the principle of resistive change:
▪ A thin metallic conductor is bonded to the surface of a structural Metallic strain gauges
material.
▪ When the material is subjected to stress, it undergoes strain
(elongation or compression).
▪ The bonded gauge deforms proportionally with the material.
▪ This deformation causes a change in the gauge’s electrical resistance
Doped Silicon strain gauge
due to variations in its length, cross-sectional area, and resistivity.
❖ The resistance change in metallic gauges is typically very small (on the order of 0.1% or less), so
precision measurement techniques are required.
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Piezoresistive Transducer - Working
❖ Semiconductor strain gauges rely on the piezoresistive effect:
▪ Mechanical strain causes significant changes in the material’s
resistivity at the atomic level.
▪ These devices provide much higher sensitivity (gauge factor),
but are more temperature-dependent and mechanically fragile
compared to metallic gauges.

❖ Strain gauges are normally connected in a Wheatstone bridge

configuration to convert small resistance variations into a differential
voltage signal:
▪ The bridge may use 1, 2, or 4 active strain gauges (quarter-, half-,
or full-bridge).
▪ Full-bridge configurations enhance sensitivity and temperature
compensation.

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Piezoresistive Transducer - Working

❖ Because the output signal is extremely small (typically millivolt-level), a low-noise instrumentation
amplifier is used to increase the signal amplitude without distortion.
❖ The amplified signal is then processed by downstream electronics, such as:
▪ Analog-to-digital converters (ADC)Data acquisition systems
▪ Control systems for automation or feedback control
▪ Display or monitoring units.

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Piezoresistive Transducer

❖ The strain gauge is bonded to a surface (carrier) that experiences the applied force or deformation. A
strain gauge changes its electrical resistance when subjected to mechanical strain.
❖ Any strain in the carrier is directly transferred to the gauge, causing a change in its dimensions and
resistance. The resistance of a conductor is given by: R = ρL / A
where: ρ = resistivity of the material, L = length of the conductor, A = cross-sectional area
❖ The gauge factor (K) is a key parameter used to quantify the sensitivity of a strain gauge.
❖ It is defined as the ratio of the fractional change in resistance to the fractional change in length
(strain):
❖ The gauge factor consists of two main contributions, such as 2ν (Poisson’s ratio term), which
accounts for the change in cross-sectional area due to lateral contraction; and piezoresistive term that
accounts for the change in resistivity caused by strain.
❖ Thus, the gauge factor reflects the combined effects of geometric changes and material property
changes.
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Piezoresistive Transducer - Advantages
Advantages
❑ Robustness: Highly durable; maintain accuracy under harsh and demanding conditions.
❑ Stability: Offer long-term calibration and consistent, reliable output.
❑ Precision: Provide high accuracy for both static and dynamic pressure measurements.
❑ Versatility: Suitable for a wide range of applications and pressure types.
Disadvantages
❖ Higher Power Consumption: Less suitable for battery-powered or portable systems.
❖ Temperature Limits: Some types (e.g., silicon-based) are restricted to lower operating
temperatures (≈ <100 °C).
❖ Sensitivity: Performance can be affected by shock, vibration, or electromagnetic interference.
❖ Cost: High-precision design and manufacturing can make them more expensive than
alternatives.
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Piezoresistive Transducer - Applications

❑ Widely applied in aerospace, aviation, navigation, petrochemicals, automotive, and defense.

❑ High-Precision Pressure Measurement: Ideal for accurate static, dynamic, and local
pressure measurements, especially in aircraft and engines.
❑ Aerospace-Specific Uses: Measure airflow over helicopter wings, engine distortion,
fluctuating pressures, and small structural movements.
❑ High-Temperature Environments: Specialized designs operate in extreme conditions,
exceeding 500 °C (e.g., jet engines).
❑ Aircraft Systems: Enable ultra-high precision (≈ 0.05%) central pressure measurements for
atmospheric data systems.
❑ Used in wind tunnel models and engine intake testing.
❑ Applied in explosion pressure measurement, automotive engine monitoring, weapon
systems, oil wells, and underground cable diagnostics.
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Example 1

What will be the change in resistance of an electrical resistance strain gauge with a gauge
factor of 2.1 and resistance of 100 ohms if it is used to measure a strain of 0.1%
Solution:
Given:
Gauge factor GF=2.1 Gauge factor:
Resistance R=100Ω
Strain ϵ=0.1%=0.001

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Practice Problems

Question-1:

A strain gauge in a robotic arm shows GF = 2.1, R = 120Ω. If strain rises from 0.05% to 0.12%,
compute ΔR for both cases.

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Optical Transduction
❖ Optical (photoelectric) transduction is the process of converting light energy (photons) into a
measurable electrical signal such as current, voltage, or a change in resistance.
❖ An optical transducer is a device designed to perform this conversion by transforming incident light
into an electrical signal that can be processed by an integrated measuring or control system.
❖ The primary purpose of an optical transducer is to detect and measure a physical quantity of light
(such as intensity, wavelength, or presence) and depending on the type of transducer, and translates
it into an electrical form that is easy to read, amplify and analyze.
❖ Optical transducer operate based on the interaction between photons and semiconductor materials.
When light strikes the semiconductor surface, the following process occurs:
▪ Photons with energy greater than the material's bandgap are absorbed.
▪ The absorbed energy excites electrons, lifting them from the valence band to the conduction band.
▪ This excitation generates free charge carriers (electron-hole pairs).
▪ The increase in charge carriers alter the electrical properties of the material, such as conductivity,
generated voltage, or emitted electrons.
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Optical Transduction - Classification
❖ Optical transducers are categorized by how they react to light (based on Photo-Effects).

Classification Effect Name Description Common Examples

Light changes the material's LDR,
Photoconductive
1. Photoconductive electrical resistance Photodiode (Reverse
Effect
(conductivity). Bias)
Light generates a voltage
Solar Cell,
2. Photovoltaic Photovoltaic Effect potential directly (active
Photodiode (Zero Bias)
source).
Light causes free electrons to
Photomultiplier Tubes
3. Photoemissive Photoelectric Effect be ejected from a surface into
(PMT)
a vacuum/gas.

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Photoconductive Transducers

❑ Photoconductive transduction is based on the photoconductive effect, process where light energy
changes the electrical resistance of a semiconductor material, converting light into a measurable
electrical signal (like a change in current or voltage).
❑ Photoconductive effect is the process in which the photons with sufficient energy strike the
semiconductor material, they excite electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, creating
additional charge carriers. This increase in charge carriers enhances the conductivity of the material
and results in a corresponding decrease in electrical resistance.
❑ The output signal is directly related to the intensity of incident light.

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Photoconductive Transducers

❑ A commonly used photoconductive device is the Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR).

❑ Photoconductive transducers are widely used in automatic lighting systems, cameras, security
systems, and industrial automation.
❑ The photoconductive cell converts the light energy into an electric current.
❑ It uses the semiconductor material like cadmium selenide, Ge, Se, as a photo sensing element.
❑ When the beam of light falls on the semiconductor material,
their conductivity increases and the material works like a
closed switch.
❑ The current starts flowing into the material and deflects the
pointer of the meter.

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Photoconductive Transducers - Working

❑ In the absence of light, most electrons remain in the valence band, resulting in very few free charge
carriers and a very high electrical resistance, typically in the megaohm (MΩ) range.
❑ When light falls on the semiconductor material (such as cadmium sulfide), photons enter the material.
❑ Photons with sufficient energy transfer their energy to electrons, exciting them from the valence band
to the conduction band.
❑ This excitation generates additional electron–hole pairs within the semiconductor.
❑ The change in the number of charge carriers alters the electrical conductivity of the material.
❑ With an external bias applied, current flows more easily through the material.
❑ The resistance of the photoconductive material changes significantly, typically from megaohms in
darkness to a few hundred ohms under illumination.
❑ This change in resistance is observed as a measurable change in current or voltage, forming the
output signal.

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Photovoltaic Transduction

❖ Photovoltaic transduction is based on the photovoltaic effect, in which an electric voltage and current
are generated in a material when it is exposed to light.
❖ Photovoltaic effect is the process in which incident light on a PN-junction semiconductor generates
electron–hole pairs when the photon energy exceeds the bandgap. The built-in electric field of the
junction separates these charge carriers, producing an output voltage and current.
❖ Photovoltaic effect occurs without any external bias (zero-bias operation).
❖ The photovoltaic cell is the type of active transducer as photovoltaic cell

the current starts flowing into the photovoltaic cell when

the load is connected to it.
❖ The silicon and selenium are used as a semiconductor
material.
❖ The magnitude of the output depends on light intensity,
wavelength and material properties.
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Photovoltaic Transduction - Working

❖ When light strikes a PN-junction semiconductor,

photons with sufficient energy generate
electron–hole pairs.
❖ The built-in electric field at the junction separates
these charge carriers.
❖ Electrons move toward the n-type region and
holes toward the p-type region.
❖ This charge separation creates a DC output
voltage across the terminals.
❖ When a load is connected, current flows,
converting light energy into electrical energy.
❖ The process occurs under zero-bias conditions
and requires no external power source.

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Photoemissive Transduction

❖ Photoemissive transduction is the process of converting light

energy (photons) into a proportional electrical signal by using
the photoemissive effect, where electrons are physically emitted
from a material's surface when struck by light.
❖ Photoelectric Effect: The process relies on the quantum
mechanical principle that a photon with sufficient energy, when
absorbed by a photosensitive material (typically a metal like
cesium-antimony alloy), can instantly knock out an electron from
the material's surface.
❖ The most common device that employs this principle is the
photoemissive cell, also known as a phototube or photomultiplier
tube (PMT).

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Photoemissive Transduction - Working

❑ A photosensitive cathode and an anode are sealed inside an

evacuated glass or quartz bulb.
❑ When light strikes the cathode, electrons are emitted.
❑ A positive potential is applied to the anode, which attracts these free
electrons.
❑ The flow of electrons from the cathode to the anode creates an
electric current in the external circuit.
❑ The magnitude of this current is directly proportional to the intensity of
the incident light, thus transducing light intensity into a measurable
electrical current.

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Thermoelectric Transducer
❑ Thermoelectric transduction is the process of directly converting thermal energy (heat) into electrical
energy (voltage/current) or vice versa, utilizing the Seebeck effect (heat to electricity) or the Peltier
effect (electricity to heat/cooling).
❑ Thermoelectric transducers, like thermocouples or thermopiles, use this principle to measure
temperature by producing a proportional voltage or to create cooling/heating by applying current,
finding uses in sensors, energy harvesting, and cooling systems.
❑ A thermocouple is made up of two dissimilar metals,
joined together at one end, that produce a voltage
(expressed in millivolts) with a change in
temperature.
❑ The junction of the two metals, called the sensing
junction, is connected to extension wires.
❑ Any two dissimilar metals may be used to make a
thermocouple.
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Thermoelectric Transducer

❖ If an electric current is passed through the junction of

two dissimilar metals, heat is absorbed or released at
the junction. This is called the Peltier effect.
(electricity to heat)
❖ When two dissimilar metals are connected together, a
small voltage called a thermo-junction (thermoelectric)
voltage is generated. This is called the Seebeck
effect. (heat to electricity)

❖ If electric current flows through a conductor

that has a temperature gradient along its
length, heating or cooling occurs within the
conductor. This is called the Thomson effect. Seebeck effect Peltier effect
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Thermoelectric Transducer - Working

❖ In practical operation, wires A and B are connected to a digital voltmeter (DVM), digital multimeter
(DMM), digital data acquisition system, or some other voltage measuring device.
❖ If the measuring device has very high input impedance, the voltage produced by the thermo-junction
can be measured accurately.
❖ However, the main problem with thermocouple
temperature measurement is that wires A and B must
connect to the leads of the voltmeter, which are
generally made of copper. If neither wire A nor wire B is
itself copper, connecting to the DVM creates two more
thermo-junctions! (Thermocouple metals are typically
not the same as those of the DVM leads)
❖ These additional thermo-junctions also produce a thermo-junctive voltage, which
can create an error when trying to measure the voltage from the sensing junction.

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Thermoelectric Transducer - Working

❑ One simple solution is to add a thermo-junction, called a reference junction, by inserting an additional
length of metal A wire into the circuit. The reference junction consists of metals A and B as indicated
on the sketch.
❑ With this arrangement, there are still two additional
thermocouple junctions formed where the
compensated thermocouple is connected to the
voltmeter (DVM).
❑ The two junctions to the DVM are now both
between metal A and copper.
❑ These two junctions are placed close together , and at the same temperature, so that their thermo-
junction voltages are identical, and cancel each other out.
❑ Meanwhile, the new reference junction is placed in a location where the reference temperature TR is
known accurately, typically in an ice-water bath with a fixed temperature of TR = 0°C.

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Thermoelectric Transducer - Working

❖ If the sensing junction is also at 0°C (Ts = 0 oC), the voltage generated by the sensing junction will be
equal and opposite of that generated by the reference junction. Hence, Vo = 0 when Ts = 0°C.
❖ However, if the sensing junction temperature is not equal to TR, Vo will be non-zero.
❖ In summary, Vo is a unique function of the sensor temperature Ts and the two metals used for the
thermocouple. Thus, for known reference temperature and known thermocouple wire materials,
output voltage Vo can be used to measure temperature. This is the fundamental concept of
thermocouple usage.
❖ The most important factor to be considered when
selecting a pair of materials is the “thermoelectric
difference” between the two materials. A significant
difference between the two materials will result in
better thermocouple performance.

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Thermoelectric Transducer

Source: [Link]
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Acoustic Sensors
❑ Acoustic sensor transduction converts sound waves (pressure variations) into electrical signals using principles like
piezoelectricity, capacitance, or electromagnetism, typically via a vibrating diaphragm or element that moves relative to
a transducer, generating a proportional voltage that can be amplified and processed.
Common Transduction Principles:
❑ Piezoelectric: Sound waves mechanically deform piezoelectric crystals (like quartz or certain ceramics), which
generate an electrical charge or voltage proportional to the stress.
❑ Electromagnetic: Sound vibrates a diaphragm attached to a coil, which moves within a magnetic field, inducing a
current via electromagnetic induction (like in dynamic microphones).
❑ Capacitive (Condenser): Sound waves move a diaphragm that alters the distance to a fixed plate, changing the
capacitance and producing a voltage signal (e.g., in condenser microphones).
❑ Piezoresistive: Mechanical strain from sound waves changes the electrical resistance of a material, producing a
measurable voltage change (common in MEMS hydrophones).
❑ Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW): Interdigital Transducers (IDTs) convert electrical signals to mechanical waves, which
travel along a piezoelectric surface, and are converted back to electrical signals upon reflection or interaction, useful
for sensing changes in the surface.

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Acoustic Sensors

Schematic illustration of
different transduction
mechanisms in soft
acoustic/vibration sensors.
a) Resistive,
b) capacitive,
c) triboelectric,
d) piezoelectric, and
e) optical effects
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 148
Acoustic Sensors - Working

❖ Reception: The sensor's diaphragm or surface

receives sound waves (pressure changes).
❖ Mechanical Vibration: The incoming acoustic
energy causes mechanical vibration.
❖ Transduction: A transducer element converts
this mechanical motion into a weak electrical
signal.
❖ Amplification & Processing:
The signal is amplified,
filtered, and conditioned for
analysis.
❖ Output: Data on intensity,
frequency, etc., is outputted

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Acoustic Sensors - Applications

Hydrophones

Distributed Acoustic Sensor(Fiber)

Acoustic Wave Sensors Acoustic Emission Infrasound

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Hall Effect Transduction

❖ The Hall effect was discovered in 1879 by Edwin Herbert Hall while working on his doctoral degree at
the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
❖ The hall effect element is a type of transducer used for measuring the magnetic field by converting it
into an EMF.
❖ The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the
Hall voltage) across a current carrying conductor (in
presence of magnetic field), perpendicular to both current
and the magnetic field.
❖ The direct measurement of the magnetic field is not
possible.
❖ The transducer converts the magnetic field into an electric
quantity which is easily measured by
the analogue and digital meters.
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Hall Effect Transducer

❑ The principle of hall effect transducer is that if the current carrying strip of the conductor is placed in a
transverse magnetic field, then the EMF develops on the edge of the conductor.
❑ The magnitude of the develop voltage depends on the density of flux, and this property of a conductor
is called the Hall effect.
❑ The Hall effect element is mainly used for magnetic measurement and for
sensing the current.
❑ The metal and the
semiconductor has the
property of hall effect
which depends on the
densities and the mobility
of the electrons.

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Hall Effect Transducer

❑ When the magnetic field is applied to the strip, the output voltage develops across the output leads 3
and 4.
❑ The develops voltage is directly proportional to the strength of the material.
❑ The output voltage is:

❑ The I is the current in ampere and the B is the flux densities in Wb/m2
❑ The current and magnetic field strength both can be measured with the help of the output voltages.
❑ The hall effect EMF is very small in conductors because of which it is difficult to measure.
❑ But semiconductors like germanium produces large EMF which is easily measured by the moving coil
instrument.
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Hall Effect Transducer
Hall Voltage

Current

Source: [Link]

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Hall Effect Transducer

Precautions

❖ Hall Voltage should be measured very carefully and accurately.

❖ Distance between pole pieces of Electromagnet should not be changed during the whole experiment.

❖ Current passing through semiconductor slab should be strictly within permissible limit.

Applications

❑ Hall effect devices produce a very low signal level and thus require amplification.

❑ In early 20th century vacuum tube amplifiers were expensive and unreliable.

❑ But with the development of the low cost integrated circuit the Hall effect sensor became suitable for
mass application.

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Hall Effect Transducer - Applications

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Hall Effect Transducer - Applications
250px-HallEffCurrentSense

Current Sensor

❑ When electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic

field is produced.

❑ Thus, it is possible to create a non-contacting current

sensor. This has several advantages:
▪ No additional resistance (a shunt) can be inserted in
the primary circuit.
▪ Also, the voltage present on the line to be sensed is
not transmitted to the sensor, which enhances the
Hall effect current sensor with
safety of measuring equipment. internal integrated circuit amplifier.

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Hall Effect Transducer - Applications

Electric Motor Control

❖Some types of brushless DC

electric motors use Hall effect
sensors to detect the position
of the rotor and feed that
information to the motor
controller.

❖This allows for more precise

motor control.

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Hall Effect Transducer - Applications
Magnetometer
❑ Smart phones like iPhone 3GS are
equipped with magnetic compass.
❑ These compass measure
Earth‘s magnetic field using
3-axis magnetometer.
❑ These magnetometer are
sensors based on Hall
Effect.
❑ These sensors produce a
voltage proportional to
the applied magnetic field
and also sense polarity.

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