BABMH202

Sensors and Signals

(For Third Semester [Link]. Mechatronics and Automation)
(Pre-requisite: NIL)

Module 2
Course Instructor:

Measurement of Mechanical Dr. B A G Yuva Raju

Quantities Assistant Professor Sr. Gr-2,
School of Mechanical Engineering,
Vellore Institute of Technology Chennai
Disclaimer: All images and supporting materials included in this presentation are drawn from open-source and publicly available references.
The content has been compiled from sources considered reliable and is provided solely for educational and non-commercial purposes.
Syllabus
Course Code Course Title L T P C

BABMH202 Sensors and Signals 3 0 2 4

Pre-requisite NIL Syllabus version

1.0

Course Objectives

1. To understand the principles, characteristics and classifications of sensors and transducers.

2. To learn the design and implementation of signal conditioning, data acquisition, and sensor interfacing techniques with
microcontrollers.
3. To enable students to analyse, process and integrate sensor data for real-world applications.

Course Outcomes

At the end of the course, the student will be able to

1. Understand the concepts of sensors and measurements and study its characteristics.
2. Identify and select appropriate sensors for measuring different physical quantities.
3. Design appropriate signal conditioning circuits for different sensors.
4. Develop and program microcontroller-based systems for analog and digital sensor interfacing.
5. Analyse sensor signals using signal processing techniques.

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Syllabus
Module: 1 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers 8 hours

Sensors and transducers – Active and passive Sensors – Errors and calibration – Static and dynamic characteristics of sensors –
Transduction principles: Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive and other types.

Module: 2 Measurement of Mechanical Quantities 14 hours

Displacement and position sensors: LVDT, potentiometers and optical encoders – Velocity and acceleration sensors: Tacho-generators,
Hall-effect sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes – Force, torque and strain measurement: Strain gauges, load cells, piezoelectric sensors –
Pressure sensors: Bourdon tube, capacitive, piezoelectric, piezoresistive sensors – Temperature sensors – thermocouples, RTDs,
thermistors – Level sensors: Capacitive, ultrasonic and optical level sensors.

Module: 3 Signal Conditioning and Data Acquisition 9 hours

Need for signal conditioning: Overview and functions – Integration of Amplifiers, bridges, filters and error compensation circuits with
sensors – Analog-to-Digital (ADC) and Digital-to-Analog (DAC) conversion – Signal isolation and grounding techniques – Data acquisition
systems: Components and architecture – Smart Sensors.

Module: 4 Sensor Interfacing 6 hours

Analog and digital sensor interfacing with Microcontrollers: principles and wiring – Sensor data acquisition using microcontrollers –
Programming for sensor interfacing – Smart sensor interfaces using I²C, SPI, UART and CAN.

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Syllabus
Module: 5 Signal Processing and Sensor Fusion 6 hours

Introduction to signal processing – Sampling theorem, aliasing and anti-aliasing filters – Digital filters: FIR and IIR basics – Introduction to
sensor fusion concepts: combining multiple sensor data.

Module: 6 Contemporary Topics 2 hours

Total Lecture hours: 45 hours

Text Book(s)

1. Ramon Pallas-Areny & John G. Webster, Sensors and Signal Conditioning, 3rd Edition, Wiley, 2020.

2. Ernest. O. Doebelin, Danish N. Manik, Measurement Systems, 7th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2019.

Reference Books

1. Ian R. Sinclair and John Dunton, Sensors and Transducers, 4th Edition, Newnes/Elsevier, 2019.

2. D. Patranabis, Sensors and Transducers, 3rd Edition, PHI Learning, 2019.

3. Markus Klein, Sensor and Data Fusion: A Tool for Information Assessment and Decision Making, Springer, 2020.

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Mark Configuration

S. No. Assessment Title Due Date Max. Mark Weightage %

1 Digital Assignment – I (Video Making) 05-Aug-2026 10 10

Digital Assignment – II (Signal

2 23-Sep-2026 10 10
Conditioning )

3 Digital Assignment – III (Prototype) 30-Oct-2026 10 10

4 Continuous Assessment Test (CAT) – I - 50 15

5 Continuous Assessment Test (CAT) – II - 50 15

6 Final Assessment Test - 100 40

Total Weightage Mark 100

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Displacement Measurement

How do we measure?

Translation Rotation

Simultaneous rotation and translation

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Displacement Measurement

Need for Displacement Measurement?

The need for secondary transducer in force, torque, etc., measurement.

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Displacement Measurement
Displacement measurement refers to measuring how far an object moves from a
reference position.
Displacement measurement have been done by using sensors:

1. Using Different types of Proximity Sensors,

2. Potentiometers,

3. LVDT,

4. RVDT,

5. Optical Encoders

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Displacement Measurement Using Proximity Sensors
❑ Proximity sensors measure displacement without physical contact, by detecting the presence or
distance of an object within a sensing range.
❑ They are widely used in automation, robotics, CNC machines, VR/AR haptic setups, and
manufacturing systems.
Inductive Proximity Sensors (Metal Objects):
Working
[Link] supplies high-frequency AC current to
the coil.
[Link] coil produces a high-frequency magnetic field.
[Link] a metal object approaches:
▪ Eddy currents are induced.
▪ These absorb energy from the oscillator.
[Link] amplitude reduces. In proximity sensors, the oscillator
creates the electrical or
Displacement Relation
electromagnetic field needed to
Closer object ⇒ More damping detect displacement.
It converts a slowly varying or noisy analog
⇒ Lower oscillator amplitude signal into a clean, stable digital output

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Capacitive proximity sensor

➢ A capacitive proximity sensor measures displacement by detecting changes in capacitance caused by the
movement of an object near the sensing electrode.
➢ It can detect both metallic and non-metallic objects and operates without physical contact.
Step 1: Generation of Electric Field (Oscillator Stage)
▪ A high-frequency oscillator applies AC voltage to the sensing
electrode.
▪ This creates an electric field extending outward from the sensor face.
▪ With no object present, the capacitance remains at a baseline value.

Step 2: Approach of Object (Displacement Begins)

❖ When an object approaches the sensor:
▪ It enters the electric field.
▪ Acts as the second plate of a capacitor.
❖ Even non-metallic objects affect the field due to their dielectric constant.

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Capacitive proximity sensor
Step 3: Change in Capacitance Due to Displacement Permittivity (ε) tells: How easily a material
•As displacement decreases (object moves closer): allows an electric field to exist and store
• Distance 𝑑decreases energy inside it.
• Effective permittivity 𝜀increases
•Hence, capacitance increases.
Closer object ⇒↑ 𝐶
Step 4: Effect on Oscillator Output
•The sensing capacitance is part of the oscillator circuit.
•Change in capacitance causes:
• Change in oscillator frequency or
• Change in oscillator amplitude
•This variation is proportional to object displacement.
Step 5: Capacitance-to-Voltage Conversion Step 6: Signal Amplification
❖ The varying oscillator signal is fed to a ❑ The voltage signal is amplified to
demodulator / rectifier. a usable level.
❖ Converts AC signal → DC voltage. ❑ Ensures sensitivity for small
❖ Output voltage varies smoothly with displacements (micron range).
𝟏
displacement. 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 ∝ 𝑪 ∝ 𝒅

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Optical Proximity Sensors (Light-Based)
Working Principle

❑ Consists of:

• Light source (LED / IR / Laser)

• Photodetector

❑ Light emitted reflects from the target.

❑ The intensity or angle of reflected light changes with displacement.

Displacement Measurement

•Greater distance → weaker reflected signal

•Distance calculated using triangulation or intensity variation

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Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors (Sound-Based)

Working Principle
❖ Sensor emits ultrasonic pulses (20–40 kHz).
❖ Echo reflected from target is received.
❖ Time of Flight (ToF) is measured.
Speed of Sound × Time
Displacement =
2
Displacement Measurement
❑ Suitable for medium to long distances (cm to meters)
Key Features
❑ Works with transparent and irregular objects
❑ Lower resolution compared to optical/capacitive sensors
Applications
•Robot navigation
•Level and gap measurement, Human presence detection

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Eddy Current Proximity Sensors (High Precision – Metal)

Working Principle
❑ Similar to inductive sensors but designed for precision
measurement.
❑ Eddy currents generated in the metal target cause changes in sensor
impedance.
❑ Output voltage varies linearly with displacement.
Displacement Measurement
▪ Extremely high accuracy (microns)
▪ Short range
Applications
•Shaft vibration measurement
•Turbine blade displacement
•High-speed rotating machinery

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Proximity Sensors

Sensor Type Target Material Range Accuracy Contact

Inductive Metal only Short High No

Capacitive Metal & non-metal Very short Very high No

Any reflective
Optical Medium–Long High No
surface

Ultrasonic Any solid object Long Medium No

Eddy Current Metal only Very short Very high No

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Displacement using Potentiometer
➢ A potentiometer is a contact-type displacement transducer
that converts linear or angular displacement into a
proportional electrical voltage using the principle of
variable resistance.

➢ It is one of the simplest and most widely used

displacement sensors in instrumentation and control
systems.
Construction of a Potentiometer
A potentiometer consists of:
[Link] element
1. Made of carbon, cermet, or wire-wound material Types Based on Displacement
2. Has uniform resistance per unit length
[Link] (slider or rotating arm) (a) Linear Potentiometer
1. Moves along the resistive track •Measures linear displacement
2. Mechanically linked to the moving object •Wiper moves in a straight line
[Link] fixed terminals (A and B) (b) Rotary Potentiometer
1. Connected to the ends of resistive element •Measures angular displacement
[Link] movable terminal (wiper, C) •Wiper rotates over a circular resistive track

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Displacement using Potentiometer
Basic Principle of Operation
❖ The potentiometer works on the principle of voltage division.
❖ When a constant voltage is applied across the resistive
element, the voltage at the wiper depends on the position of
the wiper, which in turn depends on displacement.

Step 1: Electrical Excitation

•A DC supply voltage (V) is applied across terminals A and B.
•This creates a uniform potential gradient along the resistive
element.
Voltage per unit length = constant

Step 3: Change in Resistance

Step 2: Mechanical Displacement •Movement of the wiper divides the total resistance 𝑅into two
•The object whose displacement is to be measured is parts:
mechanically coupled to the wiper. • 𝑅1 :resistance from A to wiper
•As the object moves: • 𝑅2 :resistance from wiper to B
• Linear motion → wiper slides 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
• Rotational motion → wiper rotates

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Displacement using Potentiometer
Step 4: Voltage Division Action 6. Linear Potentiometer – Displacement Relation
❖ Output voltage is taken between the wiper and one end If:
terminal. •Total length = 𝐿
❖ Using voltage divider rule: •Wiper displacement = 𝑥
𝑅1 𝑥
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉 × 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉 ×
𝑅 𝐿
Since resistance is proportional to displacement: This shows direct proportionality between voltage and
𝑅1 ∝ 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∝ 𝑥 displacement.
Where:
•𝑥= displacement
6. Rotary Potentiometer – Angular Displacement
If:
Step 5: Electrical Output •Total rotation = 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
•As displacement increases: •Angular displacement = 𝜃
• Wiper moves further 𝜃
• Resistance ratio changes 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉 ×
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Output voltage changes linearly
Used for shaft position sensing.
Hence, mechanical displacement is converted into proportional
electrical voltage.

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Displacement using Potentiometers
❖ A typical potentiometer scheme will have the following elements.

▪ Resistive element

▪ Power source

▪ Sliding contact or wiper

▪ Voltmeter

▪ Mandrel (Optional)

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Displacement using Potentiometers
Resistive element
❖ Protective coating
❖ Wire - precision drawn – dia. 50 microns
❖ Resistive element materials:
❑ alloys of nickel-chromium,
❑ copper-nickel,
❑ silver palladium
Sliding contact or wiper
❑ It should have good spring action to work efficiently in a vibratory environment.
❑ The contact force should be minimum, just to make contact, to reduce friction.
❑ Conductive lubricants can be used to reduce the friction.
❑ On the other hand, it should have sufficient contact force to reduce the contact resistance.

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Displacement using Potentiometers
Mandrel
❖ To accommodate long length resistive element in small space, it is wound over an insulator,
called “Mandrel”.
❖ Mandrel can be cylindrical or flat in shape.
❖ It should posses minimum possible coefficient of thermal expansion to stay dimensionally
stable and ideally electric insulator.
❖ Ceramic, molded epoxies are some examples of mandrel materials.

Potentiometer Block diagram

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Displacement using Potentiometers
Design variations Specification of wire wound potentiometer
▪ All climatic operation.
▪ One and two-sectional with circular operation.
▪ Power at a temperature of 100 C =0.5 watt
▪ Rated resistance range = 100 to 15000  .
▪ Tolerance on rated resistance  5 %.
▪ Resistance behavior is linear.
▪ Tolerance on linearity  0.5 %.
▪ Mass =12g.
▪ Temperature range –60 C to 125 C
▪ Relative air humidity (@35 C) = 98%
▪ Air pressure = 0.13 to 304 kPa.

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Displacement using Potentiometers
Design variations
Conductive plastic potentiometers
▪ Non-contact type
▪ Fast response
▪ Low actuating force
▪ Frequency response is high (up to 10 gHz)
▪ Low operating power
▪ No electrical contact to oxidize or wear out.
▪ Less sensitive to environmental conditions
such as humidity, salt spray, shock and
vibration
▪ It may need temperature compensation

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Displacement using Potentiometers

Advantages of potentiometer
❑ It is relatively less costly
❑ It doest not require amplification, as it gives high voltage output signals in most of the cases.
❑ Wide ranges are available.
Disadvantages of Potentiometer
❖ Due to friction and arm inertia, force is needed to move the slider. This mechanical loading distorts
the original signal.
❖ It is not suitable for high frequency applications due to slider bounce, friction, inertia.
❖ Electrical loading error is high when load resistance is low.
❖ Wear out, heating effect, oxidation of resistive element and wiper increases degradation.
❖ The resolution is limited by number of turns and coil uniformity and making it not suitable for small
displacement applications.
❖ Variation in supply voltage causes error.
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Displacement using LVDT
LVDT – Linear Variable Differential Transformer / Linear Variable Displacement Transducer
❑ Electromechanical Passive Inductive transducer -
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
❑ Most widely used inductive transducer to translate
linear motion into electrical signal
❑ Consists of one primary winding and two secondary
windings arranged concentrically and next to each
other
❑ Secondary windings have equal number of turns and
are identically placed on either side of the primary
winding
❑ Primary winding is connected to an AC source.
❑ A movable Iron core is placed inside. [Link]
[Link] watch?v=anCnrtjNLQM
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Displacement using LVDT

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Displacement using LVDT - Working

❑ The voltage, Ep, is applied across the primary

winding of the transformer.
❑ Let the voltage developed across each
secondary winding be Es1 and Es2. The
output voltage, Eo is taken across the starting
points of two secondary windings.
❑ Mathematically, the output voltage, Eo can
be written as
Eo = Es1-Es2. Advantages
❑ Output voltage of LVDT is practically linear for small
❑ The transformer present in the above circuit displacements.
is called a differential transformer since it ❑ High output and hence no need of signal amplification devices
❑ High sensitivity
produces an output voltage, which is the
❑ Rugged Can tolerate high degree of shock and vibration
difference between Es1 and Es2. ❑ Low power consumption

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Displacement using LVDT - Working
Sinusoidal waveform (AC voltage) is input into the primary coil of an LVDT
▪ The most commonly used waveform is the sinusoidal one. Suppose A ( t ) is a sinusoidal waveform:
𝐴 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑).
▪ 𝐴𝑚 is the amplitude – it is the minimal and maximal value of the waveform.
𝐴𝑚
▪ 𝐴= is the root mean square (RMS), also called effective value.
2
▪ 𝜔 = 2πf is the angular frequency of the waveform (rad/s).
▪ 𝜑 is the phase shift in degrees or radians that the waveform has shifted left or right from the reference
point ( t=0 )
▪ When 𝜑 =0 we say that the waveform is in
phase. When 𝜑 >0 or 𝜑 <0 the phase is
positive or negative respectively.
Consider the current and voltage of a branch are:
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝑣 )
i 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝑖 )

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Displacement using LVDT - Working

❑ The amount of voltage change in either of the secondary winding is proportional to the amount of core
movement. Thus the amount of linear motion can be determined.
❑ The direction of motion can be determined by measuring which voltage is increasing or decreasing.
❑ The emf induced in a secondary coil by changing current iii in primary coil is given by:
, where M = mutual inductance.
❑ For a sinusoidal input current:
❑ Output emfs induced in S1 and S2 are:
and
❑ Hence total output voltage:
❑ When core is at null position, k1=k2, output voltage = 0
❑ When core is more in S1 than in S2, i.e. k1>k2,
the output voltage
❑ When core is more in S2 than in S1, k2>k1, output voltage:
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Displacement using LVDT - Applications

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Displacement using LVDT - Applications

LVDT
Displacement

Thickness Measurement

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RVDT-Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

❑ The typical RVDTs are linear over a +40 or -40

degrees, Sensitivity is about 2mV to 3mV per
degree of rotation and the input voltage range is 3V
RMS at frequency ranges from 400Hz to 20kHz.
❑ Based on the movement of the shaft in the
transformer, the three conditions will be produced
such as:

❖ When the Core is at Null Position

❖ When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
❖ When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction

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RVDT-Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
When the Core is at Null Position
In the first condition, when the shaft is placed at the null position then the induced e.m.f in the secondary
windings are similar although reverse in phase. Thus, the differential o/p potential will be zero, and the
condition will be E1 = E2, where E0 = E1-E2 =0
When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
In the second condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of clockwise; more section of the core will
enter across the primary winding. Therefore, the induced e.m.f across the primary winding is higher than
secondary winding. Hence, the differential o/p potential is positive, and the condition will be E1 > E2,
where E0 = E1-E2 = Positive.
When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction
In the third condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of anticlockwise, more section of the core
will be entered across the secondary winding. Thus, the induced e.m.f across the secondary coil is
higher than the primary coil. Hence, the differential o/p potential is negative that means 180o phase shift,
and the condition will be E1 < E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = Negative.
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Displacement using Optical Encoders

▪ An optical encoder is a non-contact displacement transducer that converts linear or angular

displacement into digital electrical signals using light interruption or modulation.
▪ Unlike potentiometers, optical encoders provide high resolution, high accuracy, and long life due to the
absence of mechanical contact.

Basic Construction of Optical Encoder

An optical encoder consists of:
[Link] source
❑ LED or infrared (IR) LED
2. Encoded disks or scales / rulers
Rotary ❑ Transparent and opaque patterns
Optical
[Link]
Encoder
❑ Photodiode / phototransistor
[Link] conditioning circuitry
[Link] interface
Linear Optical Encoder

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Displacement using Optical Encoders - Working
❑ A beam of light emitted from an LED passes through a Code Disk (consists digital patterns etched on
them), a transparent disk patterned with opaque lines (much like the spokes on a bike wheel).
❑ The light beam is picked up by a Photodetector Assembly, also called a photodiode array or a
photosensor.
❑ The Photodetector Assembly responds to the light beam, producing a sinusoidal waveform, which is
transformed into a square wave or pulse train.
❑ This pulse signal is simple:
light = on
no light = off
❑ The pulse signal is then sent to the counter or
controller through the Electronics Board.
❑ The counter or controller (not pictured) then
uses the signal to produce the proper function
(stop, go, rotate, etc.).
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Optical Encoders - Classification

❑ Optical encoders are classified into two types according to their structure, namely:
▪ Transmissive type: In which the light emitting device (LED) and photo sensor sandwich the code
wheel, and
▪ Reflective type: In which the LED and photo sensor are placed on the same side and the code
wheel reflects the light. Transmissive type Reflective type
The photo sensor detects whether The photo sensor detects whether
the light emitted from the LED the light emitted from the LED is
passes through the slit of the code reflected by the code wheel or not.
wheel or not. The advantages are:
The advantages are: ▪ Easy to miniaturize and thin
▪ Easy to improve signal accuracy ▪ Since it can be manufactured by
▪ Easy development due to the stacking method, the
relatively simple optical path assembly process can be
simplified.

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Optical Encoders - Classification

❑ Optical encoders are classified into two types depending on the format of the output electrical signal,
namely:
▪ Incremental method that outputs the angle change (movement amount) of the rotating disc and
▪ Absolute method that outputs the absolute angle of the rotating disc.

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Example- Working
Step 1: Fix the Encoder to the Moving Object
❑ The encoder shaft (or linear scale) is rigidly attached to:
▪ A rotating shaft (angular displacement), or
▪ A wheel/rack (linear displacement)
❑ Whatever moves, the encoder disk moves exactly the same
amount.
Step 2: Encoder Resolution Is Known (Very Important)
❖ Before measurement, encoder specification is known:
❖ Example: 1000 pulses per revolution (PPR)
❖ This means: One full rotation of the shaft produces 1000 pulses
❖ This is the scale factor of measurement.
Step 3: Motion Produces Light Interruptions
❑ The disk has 1000 transparent slots.
❑ As the disk rotates:
▪ Each slot allows light to reach the detector → 1 pulse
One pulse = one small fixed angular movement

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Example- Working
Step 4: Count the Pulses (This Is the Measurement)
An electronic counter counts pulses:
❑ Suppose the shaft rotates and the counter records 250 pulses
Step 5: Convert Pulse Count → Angular Displacement
Using simple proportion:
Pulses counted
Angular displacement = × 360∘
PPR
250
= × 360∘ = 90∘
1000
This is the actual measurement.
Step 6: Direction (Optional but Important)
Two signals (A & B) are used:
❖ If A leads B → clockwise
❖ If B leads A → counter-clockwise
So displacement has:
❑ Magnitude (from pulse count)
❑ Direction (from phase)

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Example- Working

Step 7: Linear Displacement (How Rotation Becomes Step 8: Absolute Encoder (Direct Measurement)
Linear) ❑ Instead of counting pulses,
If the encoder is attached to a wheel: ❑ The disk gives a binary code for each position.
❑ Wheel circumference = 200 mm ❑ Example:
❑ One revolution = 1000 pulses ❑ Code = 101101
So: ❑ This code directly maps to a shaft angle from a

200 lookup table.

Linear displacement per pulse = = 0.2 mm
1000 No counting required. Position is read instantly.
If pulses counted = 150:
Displacement = 150 × 0.2 = 30 mm

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Absolute Encoders
❖ An absolute encoder measures the exact position (displacement) of a rotating shaft or linear object by generating a
unique digital code for every possible position.
❖ Each position corresponds to one and only one digital output.
Step 1: Mechanical Displacement Occurs Step 4: Light Detection
▪ The shaft or object rotates or moves. ▪ Each track has its own photodetector.
▪ The code disk rotates exactly with the shaft.
▪ Output of each detector:
❖ Light → logic 1
▪ Therefore, disk position = object position.
❖ No light → logic 0
Step 2: Light Emission Thus, at any instant, the encoder produces a binary word.
▪ The LED continuously emits light toward the code
disk. Example:
Step 3: Light Modulation by Code Disk
Track outputs: 1 0 1 1
Binary code: 1011
▪ As the disk rotates:
❖ Transparent segment → light passes Step 5: Unique Code for Each Position
❖ Opaque segment → light blocked •Every angular position of the shaft produces a unique binary
▪ Each track independently blocks or allows light.
(or Gray) code.
•No two positions share the same code.
This code directly represents the absolute displacement.

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Absolute Encoders

Step 6: Position Determination (Measurement) Code Disk Structure (Very Important)

If: •The code disk is rigidly attached to the shaft whose
•Encoder has n bits displacement is to be measured.
•Total positions = 2𝑛 •It contains multiple concentric tracks.
Angular resolution: •Each track has transparent and opaque segments.
360∘ •Each track represents one binary bit (MSB to LSB).
Resolution = 𝑛
2
Example:
Measured displacement:
•4 tracks → 4-bit encoder → 16 unique positions
𝜃 = Decimal value of code × Resolution
•8 tracks → 8-bit encoder → 256 unique positions
Step 7: Output to Controller
•The digital code is sent to a controller (PLC, MCU).
•Position is known instantly, without counting pulses.

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Absolute Encoders

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Incremental Encoders

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Optical Encoders
Parameter Incremental Encoder Absolute Encoder
Type of measurement Measures relative displacement Measures absolute position
Output signal Pulse train (A, B channels) Unique digital code
Reference required Yes (index or homing required) No reference required
Power failure effect Position information is lost Position is retained
Restart behavior Requires re-homing Immediate position available
Displacement calculation By counting pulses By decoding position code
Direction detection Using phase difference of A and B Directly from code
Index pulse (Z) Present Not required
Code disk structure Single track with uniform slots Multiple tracks with unique patterns
Signal processing Simple (pulse counting) Complex (code decoding)
Resolution Depends on pulses per revolution Depends on number of bits
Accuracy High Very high
Response speed Very high Slightly lower
Complexity Simple Complex
Cost Low High
Noise immunity Good Very good
Typical applications Speed sensing, conveyors, motors CNC machines, robotics, positioning systems

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 45

Speed using Tacho-generators

❑ Tachometer (Tacho-generators) used for measuring the rotational speed or angular velocity
of the machine which is coupled to it.
❑ It works on the principle of relative motion between the magnetic field and shaft of the
coupled device.
❑ The relative motion induces the EMF in the coil which is placed between the constant
magnetic field of the permanent magnet. Developed EMF is directly proportional to the
speed of the shaft.
❑ Mechanical tachometer measures the speed of shaft regarding revolution per minutes.
❑ Electrical tachometer converts the angular velocity into an electrical voltage.
❑ Depends on the natures of the induced voltage, the electrical tachometer is categorized into
▪ AC Tachometer
▪ DC Tachometer

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 46

DC Tachometer Generator

❖ The main parts of the DC

tachometer generator are:

▪ Permanent magnet,

▪ Armature,

▪ Commutator,

▪ Brushes,

▪ Variable resistor, and

▪ Moving coil voltmeter.

[Link]

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 47

DC Tachometer Generator
❖ The machine whose speed is to be measured is coupled with the shaft of the DC tachometer
generator.
❖ DC tachometer works on the principle that when the closed conductor moves in the magnetic field,
EMF induces in the conductor.
❖ The magnitude of the induced emf depends on the flux link with the conductor and the speed of the
shaft.
❖ The armature of the DC generator revolves between the constant field of the permanent magnet.
❖ The rotation induces the emf in the coil.
❖ The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the shaft speed.
❖ The commutator converts the alternating current of the armature coil to the direct current with the
help of the brushes. The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced emf.
❖ The polarity of the induced voltage determines the direction of motion of the shaft.
❖ The resistance is connected in series with the voltmeter for controlling the heavy current of the
armature. [Link]

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 48

DC Tachometer Generator
❖ The emf induces in the DC tachometer generator is given as

▪ where, E – generated voltage

▪ Φ – flux per poles in Weber
▪ P- number of poles
▪ N – speed in revolution per minutes
▪ Z – the number of the conductor in armature windings.
▪ a – number of the parallel path in the armature windings.

[Link]

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 49

DC Tachometer Generator

Advantages of the DC Generator

❖ The generated emf is directly proportional to speed.
❖ The direction of rotation of armature is known by the polarity of generated voltage.
❖ The range of output voltage is about 10mV/rpm and it can be measured by means of a moving coil
voltmeter that contains a uniform scale.
❖ The presence of a series resistor limits the current from the generator in case of a short circuit on the
output side.
❖ The relationship between input (speed) and output (voltage) is linear.
Disadvantages of DC Generator
❖ The commutator and brushes require the periodic maintenance.
❖ The output resistance of the DC tachometer is kept high as compared to the input resistance. If the
large current is induced in the armature conductor, the constant field of the permanent magnet will be
distorted. [Link]

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 50

AC Tachometer Generator

❖ The main parts of the AC tachometer

generator are:
▪ Permanent magnet (rotating)
▪ Armature (stationary)
▪ Rectifier,
▪ Smoothing Circuit,
▪ Moving coil voltmeter.

[Link]

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 51

AC Tachometer Generator

❖ The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and brushes which have many
disadvantages.
❖ The AC tachometer generator designs for reducing the problems.
❖ The AC tachometer has stationary armature and rotating magnetic field. Thus, the
commutator and brushes are absent in AC tachometer generator.
❖ The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of the stator.
❖ The amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the speed of the shaft.
Thus, either amplitude or frequency is used for measuring the angular velocity.
❖ The circuit is used for measuring the speed of the rotor by considering the amplitude of the
induced voltage. The induces voltages are rectified and then passes to the capacitor filter
for smoothening the ripples of rectified voltages.
[Link]

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 52

AC Tachometer Generator
Advantages of AC Tachometer Generator
❖ The amplitude and frequency of voltage induced in stator winding are proportional to speed.
❖ The unknown speed can be measured in two ways. One is by measuring the amplitude and the other
is by measuring the frequency of the induced voltage.
❖ The rectified output voltage can be measured by means of a moving coil voltmeter that contains a
uniform scale.
❖ The problems of the dc tachometer generator due to the presents of the commutator are absent.
❖ The relationship between input (speed) and output (amplitude and frequency of voltage) is linear.
Disadvantages of AC Tachometer Generator
❖ Under low-speed conditions, the resulting output voltage frequency is low.
❖ Under high-speed conditions impedance of coils increases along with frequency. So in order to have
good linearity, the input impedance of the display device should be high compared to the impedance
of coils.
[Link]

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 53

Working
Step-1: Mechanical Speed Input Step-3: Electromagnetic Induction (Faraday’s Law)
❖ Due to flux cutting, the magnetic flux linked with the
❖ The shaft whose speed is to be measured
armature conductors changes continuously.
is mechanically coupled to the rotor ❖ According to Faraday’s law:
(armature) of the tacho-generator. • An EMF is induced in the conductors.
❖ When the shaft rotates, the armature rotates 𝑑Φ
𝐸∝
at the same angular speed (ω). 𝑑𝑡
❖ Since the rate of flux change depends on speed:
❖ Input quantity: Mechanical rotational speed 𝐸∝𝜔
Output at this stage: AC voltage proportional to speed
Step-2: Magnetic Field Interaction
❖ The stator windings / permanent magnet Step-4: Generation of AC Voltage
❖ As the armature rotates:
create a stationary magnetic field.
• Direction of flux cutting reverses every half-rotation.
❖ As the armature rotates, its conductors move ❖ Therefore:
through this magnetic field. • The induced EMF alternates in polarity.
❖ The conductors cut magnetic flux.
The tacho-generator produces an AC voltage whose
amplitude depends on speed.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 54

Working
Step-5: AC to DC Conversion (Bridge Rectifier) Step-7: Voltage Measurement Using PMMC
❑ The AC output is applied to a bridge rectifier. Voltmeter
❑ The rectifier: ❖ The smoothed DC voltage is applied to a PMMC
▪ Converts both positive and negative half-cycles voltmeter.
into a unidirectional output. ❖ PMMC instruments:
❑ At the rectifier output: • Respond only to DC
▪ Voltage flows in one direction only • Provide linear and accurate indication
▪ But magnitude still varies periodically ❖ The voltmeter reading corresponds to the average
Output now: Pulsating DC DC voltage.
Step-6: Smoothing Using Capacitor
Step-8: Speed Indication
❑ A capacitor is connected across the rectifier output.
❖ Since:
❑ The capacitor:
• Charges during voltage peaks 𝑉𝐷𝐶 ∝ 𝜔
• Discharges during voltage dips ❖ The voltmeter scale is calibrated directly in speed
❑ This reduces ripple and smoothens the waveform. units (rpm or rad/s).
Output becomes: Nearly steady DC voltage ❖ Final output: Direct speed indication
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 55
Accelerometers

❑ An accelerometer is a device that senses the different types of accelerations or vibrations.

❑ Acceleration is the change in velocity caused by movements of a body. An accelerometer absorbs the
vibrations created by the body and uses it to know the orientation of the body.
❑ Accelerometers are electromechanical devices
that sense either static or dynamic forces of
acceleration. Static forces include gravity, while
dynamic forces can include vibrations and
movement.
❑ Accelerometers can measure acceleration on one,
two, or three axes. 3-axis units are becoming more
common as the cost of development for them
decreases.
How Accelerometer Works?
❑ Consider a ball suspended inside a three-dimensional cube.
❑ In outer space, where there is no gravity, the ball remains floating at the center of the cube (Fig. 1).
❑ If the cube accelerates to the left with an acceleration of 1g (1g = 9.8 m/s²), the ball strikes the wall
along the X-axis. (Fig. 2)
❑ The force exerted by the ball on the wall corresponds to an acceleration of 1g along the X-axis.
❑ When the cube is placed on Earth, gravity pulls the ball downward toward the Z-axis wall (Fig. 3).
❑ Even though the cube is stationary, the ball exerts a force equivalent to 1g on the Z-axis.
❑ This force arises from the gravitational acceleration acting on the ball.
❑ An accelerometer measures both:
• Static acceleration caused by gravity (used for tilt sensing).
• Dynamic acceleration caused by motion, shock, and vibration.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Types of Accelerometer

❑ The 3 important types of accelerometers are capacitive MEMS accelerometer, piezoresistive

accelerometer, and piezoelectric accelerometer.
❑ Capacitive MEMS Accelerometer: The MEMS stands for Micro-Electro-Mechanical-System. MEMS
is a fabrication technology. In this type of accelerometer, the changes in capacitance are detected
instead of a change in resistance. Most of the mobile devices use this MEMS accelerometer.
❑ Piezoresistive Accelerometer: It measures the vibrations by changes in resistance. This is the
accelerometer that works as DC responsive and proves efficient while measuring very little vibrations,
for example, gravity vector.
❑ Piezoelectric Accelerometer: In this type the sensors are made of crystals or ceramics like lead
zirconate, lead titanate, etc. This sensor absorbs the vibrations and produces the same amount of
electrical signals.
How Capacitive MEMS Accelerometer Works?

❑ MEMS accelerometer consists of a micro-machined

structure built on top of a silicon wafer.
❑ This structure is suspended by polysilicon springs. It
allows the structure to deflect at the time when the
acceleration is applied on the particular axis.

❑ Due to deflection the capacitance between fixed plates

and plates attached to the suspended structure is
changed. This change in capacitance is proportional to
the acceleration on that axis.
❑ The sensor processes this change in capacitance and
converts it into an analog output voltage.
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
❖ Piezoelectric accelerometers are made up of single crystals.
❖ These use the piezoelectric effect to measure the acceleration.
❖ When applied to stress, these crystals generate a voltage which is interpreted to determine the
velocity and orientation.
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
❑ This sensor is one of the most commonly applied sensors for measuring vibration levels. Therefore,
piezoelectric accelerometers are widely used in industrial applications for diagnostics and control of
machines and equipment.
❑ A piezoelectric acceleration sensor utilizes the piezoelectric effect to measure the relative distance
between the mass and sensor's base, and then represents the acceleration in terms of an output
voltage. Quartz crystals are occasionally used as sensing elements. But usually, ceramic
piezoelectric materials such as barium titanate, lead zirconite titanate (PZT), and lead metaniobate
are used.
❑ Piezoelectric accelerometers are highly sensitive and accurate, which makes them suitable for a wide
range of applications – from extremely advanced and precise seismic measurements to crash and
impact tests under adverse conditions.
❑ The output signal of piezoelectric accelerometers is usually subjected to amplification and
temperature compensation. The calculation of the object displacement is facilitated by the signal
transmission to the integrator input.
Piezoresistive Accelerometers
❖ Its principle of operation is similar to that of a strain gauge, i.e. a
sensor which measures stresses. This type of accelerometer is
made with the use of piezoresistive material, which becomes
deformed under the influence of an external force, resulting in a
change in resistance.
❖ The change is then converted into an electrical signal received by
a receiver integrated with the accelerometer. Piezoresistive
accelerometers are characterized by a wide measuring range,
thanks to which they are able to record vibrations of high
amplitudes and frequencies, which is useful, among others, during
various crash tests.
❖ Another advantage of piezoresistive accelerators is their ability to measure slow-changing signals,
which allows them to be applied in inertial navigation systems to calculate velocity and movement of
system components.
Applications
❑ For inertial navigation systems, highly sensitive ❑ To detect faults in rotator machines.
accelerometers are used. ❑ These are also used for building and structural
❑ To detect and monitor vibrations in rotating monitoring to measure the motion and vibration
machinery. of the structure when exposed to dynamic loads.
❑ To display images in an upright position on ❑ To measure the depth of CPR chest
screens of digital cameras. compressions.
❑ For flight stabilization in drones. ❑ Navigation systems make use of accelerometer
❑ Accelerometers are used to sense orientation, sensors for knowing the direction.
coordinate acceleration, vibration, shock. ❑ Remote sensing devices also use
❑ Used to detect the position of the device in accelerometers to monitor active volcanoes.
laptops and mobiles. ❑ Used in mobile phones for multiple functions like
❑ High-frequency recording of biaxial and triaxial tilt detection and motion detection
acceleration in biological applications for ❑ Cameras use for anti-blur capturing
discrimination of behavioral patterns of animals. ❑ Used in cars to study shocks and vibrations
❑ Machinery health monitoring.
Accelerometer Specifications
❑ Frequency Response – This parameter can be found out by analyzing the properties of the quartz
crystal used and also the resonance frequency of the device.
❑ Accelerometer Grounding – Grounding can be in two modes. One is called the Case Grounded
Accelerometer which has the low side of the signal connected to their core. This device is susceptible
to ground noise. Ground Isolation Accelerometer refers to the electrical device kept away from the
case. Such a device is prone to ground produced noise.
❑ Resonant Frequency – It should be noted that the resonant frequency should be always higher the
frequency response.
❑ Temperature of Operation – An accelerometer has a temperature range between -50 degree
Celsius to 120 degree Celsius. This range can be obtained only by accurate installment of the device.
❑ Sensitivity – The device must be designed in such a way that it has higher sensitivity. That is, even
for a small accelerative force, the electrical output signal should be very high. Thus a high signal can
be measured easily and is sure to be accurate.
❑ Axis – Most of the industrial applications requires only a 2-axis accelerometer. But if you want to go
for 3D positioning, a 3-axis accelerometer will be needed.
❑ Analog/Digital Output – You must take special care in choosing the type of output for the device.
Analog output will be in the form of small changing voltages and digital output will be in PWM mode.
MEMS Gyroscope
❖ While accelerometers measure linear acceleration, gyroscopes measure angular
rotation. They do this by detecting a special force known as the Coriolis effect.
Coriolis Effect
❑ The Coriolis effect occurs when an object is moving while the entire system is
rotating.
❑ Consider a ball thrown on a rotating merry-go-round.
❑ Although the ball is thrown in a straight line, its path appears curved because of
the rotation of the merry-go-round.
❑ This apparent sideways deflection is known as the Coriolis effect.
Coriolis Force
❖ Consider a mass (m) moving with velocity (v).
❖ If the system rotates with an angular velocity (Ω), a force acts on the
mass.
❖ This force, called the Coriolis force, acts perpendicular to the direction
of motion.
❖ The magnitude of the Coriolis force increases with the angular velocity.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 65
MEMS Gyroscope Working Principle

❑ A MEMS gyroscope is a miniature sensor

that operates based on the Coriolis
effect.
❑ It consists of a central proof mass divided
into four sections: M1, M2, M3, and M4.
❑ The proof masses continuously oscillate
inward and outward in the horizontal
plane at a fixed frequency.
❑ When the device rotates, the Coriolis
force acts on the moving masses and
alters their vibration pattern.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 66

MEMS Gyroscope Working Principle
Roll Mode (Rotation about X-axis)
❑ Angular rotation is applied along the X-
axis.
❑ Proof masses M1 and M3 move upward
and downward out of the plane.
❑ The displacement is caused by the Coriolis
force.
Pitch Mode (Rotation about Y-axis)
❑ Angular rotation is applied along the Y-axis.
❑ Proof masses M2 and M4 move upward and downward out of the plane.
❑ The resulting displacement is proportional to the applied rotation.
Yaw Mode (Rotation about Z-axis)
❑ Angular rotation is applied along the Z-axis.
❑ Proof masses M2 and M4 move horizontally in opposite directions.
❑ The motion indicates the magnitude and direction of rotation.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 67
Force Measurement

❖Force can be said to be any interaction of the object such that it changes the object's
motions or causes a change in velocity.

❖In other words, if the force is unopposed, it will change the velocity of the body.

❖The forces can be measured in many ways as follows

1. Direct methods.

2. Indirect methods.

𝑭𝑳 = 𝒎𝒈𝒍

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 68

Force Measurement

Direct method
❖ It involves a direct companion known as gravitational force on the standard
mass, for Example:- Balancing mass.
Equal Arm
❑ It is the simplest force measuring system, its basic principle is based on the
moment of comparison.
❑ This system consist of beam pivoted on a knife edge of fulcrum placed
exactly at the centre of the beam.
❑ When an unknown force is applied at one end of the beam, the mass
on the other end of the beam balances the unknown forces.
𝑭𝑳 = 𝒎𝒈𝒍
❑ Since it is an equal arm, F = mg

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 69

Force Measurement

Unequal Arm Balance

❖ Unequal Arm is used to measure the heavier weight with
the help of lighter weights. It uses two arms out of which
one is called as load arm, and other is power arm.
❖ Load arm is where the load is applied and whereas the
power arm is used to apply the counterweights to balance
in equilibrium.
❖ For balance of Moments: 𝐹𝑡 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝐹𝑔 ∗ 𝑏
𝒃
❖ or test force: 𝑭𝒕 = 𝑭𝒈 ∗
𝒂
❖ Therefore, the test force is proportional to the distance ‘b’
of the mass from the pivot.
w1  l1 = w2  l2
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 70
Force Measurement

Compound lever balance

❑ Large weight W may be measured in terms of
smaller weights Wp and Ws.
❑ Weight Wp is called the poise weight and Ws the
pan weight.
❑ The weight W1 and W2 is may be substituted for W.
❑ With W on the scale platform and balanced by a
pan weight Ws, the relation is given by
T*b = Ws * a - (1)
T*c = W1 (f/d) e + W2 * h - (2)
Ws  a W  h ca
❑ Now if we proportion the linkage such that h/e = f/d. = W = .Ws = k  Ws
b e bh
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 71
Force Measurement

Indirect methods

1. Accelerometer

❖ It involves measuring the effects of force on the

body, such as the acceleration of a body’s
known mass subjected to force.

❖ Example :- Accelerometer

❖ A force will make a body accelerate. By

measuring the acceleration, the force may be
determined from the equation.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 72

Force Measurement

2. Load cell
➢ Load cell is an electromechanical transducer that converts the loads/forces acting on it into an analog
electrical signal. The major drawback is the need to minimize the friction.
➢ Load cell provides accurate measurement of compressive and tensile load/forces.
Types of load cells: 1. Hydraulic load cell. and 2. Pneumatic load cell.
1. Hydraulic Load cell
❑ Device used to measure force or weight by
converting a force into a measurable hydraulic
pressure.
❑ These cells are widely used in industrial
applications for weighing and force measurement
due to their robustness and reliability.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 73
Force Measurement
Hydraulic Load cell - Working Principle:
❑When a force or load is applied to the diaphragm or piston, it compresses the hydraulic fluid within the
pressure chamber.
❑This compression generates a pressure within the fluid that is directly proportional to the applied force.
❑The pressure is then read by a pressure gauge or a Bourdon tube, which converts the pressure
reading into a force measurement.
Applications:
▪ Used for measuring Large forces, of the orders of millions of
newtons.
▪ Weighing Systems: Used on industrial scales to weigh large
containers, trucks, or other heavy objects.
▪ Force Measurement: Employed in applications where accurate
force measurement is critical, such as material testing machines.
▪ Safety Monitoring: Used in structural health monitoring systems to
measure loads and ensure safety.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 74
Force Measurement
Example of a Hydraulic Load Cell Application – Weigh Bridge

[Link] truck drives onto a platform that is supported by several hydraulic load cells.

[Link] weight of the truck applies a force to the diaphragms or pistons of the load cells.

[Link] force compresses the hydraulic fluid within the pressure chambers of each load cell.

[Link] pressure generated in the hydraulic fluid is measured by pressure gauges.

[Link] total weight of the truck is calculated by summing the forces measured by each load cell.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 75

Force Measurement

Pneumatic Load cell

❑ A pneumatic load cell is a type of load cell that
measures force or weight by using pressurized air or
gas.
❑ Particularly advantageous in environments where
Pressure P2 is the indication of Force ‘F’
electrical load cells may pose risks, such as in
explosive atmospheres
❑ Known for their high accuracy and reliability,
especially in applications requiring continuous or
dynamic weighing

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Force Measurement
Working Principle:
❖ When a load is applied to the diaphragm or bellows, it causes a deformation.
❖ This deformation changes the gap between the nozzle and the flapper, altering the airflow and,
consequently, the pressure within the pressure chamber.
❖ The pressure change is proportional to the applied load.
❖ The pressure gauge/transducer measures this pressure and converts it into a readable force or
weight measurement.
Applications:
❑ Process Control: Used in industries like pharmaceuticals and chemicals for continuous weighing
and batching.
❑ Hazardous Areas: Ideal for environments where sparks or electrical components pose risks.
❑ Precision Weighing: Employed in laboratories and quality control processes requiring high accuracy.
❑ Dynamic Weighing: Suitable for applications involving continuous or changing loads, such as
conveyor belts.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 77
Force Measurement
Advantages Disadvantages
Accuracy and Precision: Load cells provide high accuracy Cost: High-quality load cells can be expensive, which might be
and precision in measurements, making them ideal for a concern for budget-sensitive projects or applications.
applications requiring detailed and reliable data. Temperature Sensitivity: Load cells can be sensitive to
Wide Range of Capacities: They are available in various temperature changes, which might affect their accuracy unless
capacities, from very small loads to very large ones, making they are properly compensated.
them versatile for different applications. Calibration Needs: They require regular calibration to ensure
Digital Output: Many load cells provide a digital output, making continued accuracy over time, which adds to maintenance
them compatible with modern data acquisition systems and efforts.
easier to integrate into automated systems. Electrical Interference: The electrical signals from load cells
Low Maintenance: Load cells are generally low-maintenance, can be affected by electromagnetic interference, requiring
with no moving parts that can wear out, leading to long-term careful installation and shielding.
reliability. Non-Linearity: Some load cells exhibit non-linear behavior,
Versatility: They can be used in a wide range of industries, particularly when used near their maximum capacity, which can
including manufacturing, automotive, aerospace, and medical impact accuracy.
applications. Complexity: Integrating load cells into a system can be
Compact Size: Many load cells are compact and can be complex, requiring careful consideration of factors like signal
integrated into space-constrained environments. conditioning and data acquisition.
Durability: Load cells are often built to withstand harsh Environmental Factors: Exposure to extreme environmental
conditions, including high temperatures, corrosive conditions, such as very high humidity or corrosive substances,
environments, and heavy impacts. can affect the performance and longevity of load cells.

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Force using Strain gauge Load Cell

❖ Strain gauge translates change in force into change in voltage, which are calibrated directly
in terms of force applied.
❖ Strain gauges are constructed of wire grids, bonded
precisely to machined supporting columns.
❖ The grids are connected electrically to form a balanced
wheat stone bridge.
❖ Additional compensation resistors are added to the circuit
for maintaining the accuracy.
❖ The foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel
55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a backing material
Foil type strain gauge
plastic (ployimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy.
❖ The strain gauges are secured to the workpiece by using epoxy or Cyanoacrylate cement
Eastman 910 SL.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 79
Force using Strain gauge Load Cell
❑ Stress is the term used to describe the internal resistance force that an object will exhibit to the
external application of force, while a strain is the measure of the amount of deformation and
displacement that the object will experience as a result of the applied external force.
❑ The typical strain gage consists of an insulating
substrate onto which a conductive metallic foil pattern
has been deposited in a zig-zag pattern.
❑ When the strain gage is subjected to a force, the
device will either compress or elongate depending on
the direction of the applied force.
❑ The elongation or compression of the strain gage
distorts the metallic foil pattern on the substrate,
which changes its electrical resistance.
❑ The change in electrical resistance can be used to measure the applied force to the strain gage.
❑ An electrical bridge network known as a Wheatstone bridge circuit is typically used to convert the
change in resistance of the strain gage to a voltage measurement.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 80
Force using Strain gauge Load Cell

❖ In the balanced bridge we can have a

relation, R2/ R1 = Rx / R3
▪ where Rx is resistance of strain gauge
element,
▪ R2 is balancing/adjustable resistor,
▪ R1 and R3 are known constant value
resistors.
❖ The measured deformation or displacement
by the stain gauge is calibrated against
change in resistance of adjustable resistor R2
which makes the voltage across nodes A and
B equal to zero.

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 81

Force using Strain gauge Load Cell

❖ When the load is applied to the body of a resistive load cell as shown above, the elastic
member, deflects as shown and creates a strain at those locations due to the stress applied.
❖ As a result, two of the strain gauges are in compression, whereas the other two are in
tension as shown in below animation.

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Force using Strain gauge Load Cell

• When a metal conductor is stretched or compressed,

its resistance changes on account of the fact that both
length and diameter of the conductor changes
• Strain gauges can be stuck onto surface like a postal
stamp
• The resistance R of the conductor changes in
proportion to the strain ɛ Strain gauges: (a) metal wire, (b) metal foil, (c)
∆𝑹 semiconductor
= 𝑮𝒇 𝜺
𝑹
G – Constant of Proportionality and termed as Guage
Factor

Strain gauges: (a) Cantilever (b) ring (c) U shaped

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Force using Strain gauge Load Cell
Quarter bridge
❑ A quarter bridge has one strain gauge and three non-variable resistors. It can be used as
a thermometer because strain gauges change resistance with temperature. It's also often
used when it's not possible to bond complementary pairs of strain gauges to a test
specimen. Half bridge
❖ A half bridge has two strain gauges and two non-variable
resistors. The upper strain gauge is positioned to experience the
opposite force of the lower gauge. For example, if the upper gauge is
compressed, the lower gauge will stretch. Half bridges are more
sensitive than quarter bridges and can detect small strain levels more
Full bridge accurately.
❑ A full bridge has four strain gauges and no non-variable resistors. Full bridges are more
sensitive than quarter bridges and half bridges, and the output voltage is directly
proportional to the applied force. However, full bridges require more strain gauges than
quarter bridges, access to both sides of the gaged structure, and are more expensive.
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Force using Strain gauge Load Cell

Applications
1. Strain measurement
2. Residual stress measurement
3. Vibration measurement
4. Torque measurement
5. Bending and deflection
measurement
6. Compression and tension
measurement

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Force using Piezoelectric Transducer

❑ Piezoelectric transducer is an electrical transducer that can convert any form of physical quantity into
an electrical signal, which can be used for measurement.
❑ An electrical transducer that uses the properties of piezoelectric materials to convert physical
quantities into electrical signals is known as a piezoelectric transducer.

Piezoelectric Transducer Working

❖ Piezoelectric Transducer works with the principle of piezoelectricity. The faces of piezoelectric
material, usually quartz, are coated with a thin layer of conducting material such as silver.
❖ When stress is applied, the ions in the material move towards one of the conducting surfaces while
moving away from the other. This results in the generation of charge. This charge is used to calibrate
stress.
❖ The polarity of the produced charge depends upon the direction of the applied stress. Stress can be
applied in two forms: Compressive stress and Tensile stress.

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Force using Piezoelectric Transducer

❖ The stress-strain relationship gives the relationship between the force F and the change t in the
crystal thickness t.

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Measurement of force – Elastic Devices
Proven Ring - Force Measurement
❑ Principle: A proving ring is a circular ring made of metal that
deforms elastically when a force is applied.
❑ The deformation (displacement) of the ring is proportional to the
applied force.
Operation:
Force Application: The force is applied to the proving ring.
Deformation Measurement: The deformation of the ring is
measured using a dial gauge or strain gauge.
Force Calculation: The applied force is calculated based on the
measured deformation and the calibration constant of the proving
ring.
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Measurement of force – Elastic Devices
Proven Ring - Force Measurement
❑ Ring shaper load cell with high
precision and accuracy.

Mechanical method of Force Measurement

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Torque Measurement

Need for torque measurement

❖ The main purpose of torque measurement is to calculate mechanical power transmitted by a shaft
❖ In rotating cylinder viscometer, measurement of torque helps in measurement of Viscosity.
❖ In an automated assembly line where screw and bolts are used for assembly, electrical or pneumatic
screwdrivers are used. Applying over will spoil the tread of the fastener. Calibration of such devices
requires torque measurement.
Definition: Torque is defined as the force which tends to change the linear motion of rotation of a body.
❖ Torque may also be defined as the turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis.
T = F.D
where, T-torque, F-force, D-perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation of the line of action of the
force.
❖ Basically, there are 2 types of torque sensors:
▪ In-line rotating torque sensors, and In-line stationary torque sensors.
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Torque Measurement
Inline rotating torque sensor
❖ The in-line rotating torque sensor consists of a metal shaft with
bonded strain gauges electrically connected in the form of
Wheatstone’s bridge.
❖ During torsion of the shaft, pure tensile stress exists in one
direction, 45◦ to the axis, whereas 45◦ in the other direction pure
compressive stress is extant. The rotor shaft being elastic, will
deflect minutely under the imposed stresses.
❖ The strain gauges can be kept on the shaft at precisely 45◦ to the
shaft axis to sense the tensile/compressive deformation due to
torsion.
❖ The output of the Wheatstone’s bridge is in proportion to applied
Inline rotational torque measurement using
torque. Bridge power and output voltage may be connected to the strain gauge (a) tension-compression stresses
sensor through slip rings and brushes. on surface of a circular shaft (b) wheatstone’s
bridge

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Torque Measurement
In-line rotating torque sensors
❖ A sensor with non-contacting power supply and signal pick-off uses
transformers T1, T2 for transmitting the bridge power and output signals
between the rotating and stationary members.

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Torque Measurement
In-line stationary torque sensor
❖ It utilizes the Wiedemann Magnetostriction effect for the measurement of
torque.
❖ Magnetostriction effect causes changes in the permeability of the
materials subjected to tensile/compressive stresses.
❖ The permeability (to concentrate magnetic flux) increases under tensile
stress and decreases under compressive stress.
Construction and working
❖ The sensor consists of two primary and two secondary windings mounted near the rotating shaft.
❖ The secondary coils S₁ and S₂ are coupled by magnetic flux through the shaft to the primary windings.
❖ When there is no loading on the shaft, the permeability of the shaft is uniform and equal but opposite voltages
are induced in the secondary coils.
❖ When torque is applied to the shaft, tensile stress is produced on one side and compressive stress on the other,
causing uneven changes in permeability. This results in unequal magnetic flux distribution, which induces
unequal voltages in secondary windings S₁ and S₂, thereby unbalancing the bridge and producing an output
voltage proportional to the applied torque.
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Torque Measurement
Bridge circuit analogous to Wheatstone’s network
❖ The magnetic circuit of the in-line stationary torque sensor is equivalent to a Wheatstone bridge
network.
❖ The bridge is excited by MMF (Magnetomotive Force) produced by the primary windings.
❖ Rp1, Rp2, Rs1, Rs2 are the reluctances of corresponding air gaps between the primary and secondary
windings and shaft – analogous to resistances.
❖ Ra, Rb, Rc, Rd – reluctance of the metal shaft.
Wireless Telemetry
❖ Used for transmitting torque measurement signals from
rotating shafts.
❖ Eliminates slip rings and mechanical contacts.
❖ Suitable for high-speed rotating systems. Wheatstone bridge analogy of In-line stationary torque sensor
Typical Applications
❖ Powertrain testing: engine, engine diagnostics, cold engine, transmission driveshaft and rear axle differential
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Torque Measurement
Stroboscopic method
❖ When torque is applied to a shaft between its ends it is twisted with respect to each other.
❖ The amount of twist is proportional to the torque applied.
❖ By measuring the amount of twist at one end with respect to another end the torque can be
determined

Limitations
❑ It can be used only with shafts rotating at constant speed.
Advantages ❑ The variation in speed affects the sensitivity.
❖ Simple and inexpensive method ❑ The accuracy is low due to small displacement of the
❖ Power of the shaft can be calculated. pointer.
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Torque Measurement
Strain Gauge Torsion Meter
❖ When a shaft is subjected to torque, it is twisted due to shear stress. There will be maximum strain in
the principle axis direction of the shaft. By measuring the strain which proportional to the torque, we
can measure the torque.

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Torque Measurement
Proximity Torque Sensor (Magnetic/Photoelectric Electromagnetic torque meter
torsion meter)
❑ The amount of current required to bring shaft to
❖ There is a relative displacement between two slotted
discs due to applied torque. standstill is measure of torque
❖ This relative displacement is measured using
photoelectric or magnetic pickup.
❖ There is a proportional phase shift in the phase
generated / received by proximity pickup.
❖ The phase shift becomes a measure of the torque.

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Torque Measurement - Dynamometers

❑ Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or work is done.

❑ Torque – rotational equivalence of linear force. It is a measure of the capacity of a force to
produce the rotation of an object about an axis
❑ Power transmitted is given by 𝑃 = 𝜔. 𝑇 where P is the Power (Watts), T is the torque in (N-
m),  is the angular speed in (rad/s)
• Dynamometer
• Prony Brake
• Torsion Dynamometer
• Tacho meter
• Optical RPM Meter

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Torque Measurement - Dynamometers

❑ A dynamometer or "dyno" for short, is a device for simultaneously measuring the torque and
rotational speed (RPM) of an engine, motor or other rotating prime mover so that its
instantaneous power may be calculated, and usually displayed by the dynamometer itself as
kW or bhp.
❖ Dynamometers, also called load cells, are
devices used for measuring force and tension
when a load is pulled on both sides.
❖ Dynamometers are now integral parts of
force measurement in industries like stage
rigging, cell towers, construction, aviation and
more. Hand Dynamometer used in Hand grip
strength assessment - Physiotherapy

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Torque Measurement - Dynamometers
❖ Dynamometers measure the tension force exerted between two attached shackles.
❖ The analog, or mechanical, dynamometer is operated by placing the unit on a line and adjusting the
“zero” position to negate the existing tension.
❖ Then, as force is applied to the dynamometer bar, the internal gauge movement is adjusted to provide
an accurate measurement. Digital dynamometers work similarly, but with no moving parts. Instead,
they utilize strain gauge technology.

❑ Dynamometers are used to measure Torque and Power, and it

comes in different types, including:
▪ Mechanical Dynamometers: Use mechanical means to
measure force, such as springs and levers.
▪ Electrical Dynamometers: Use electrical methods like strain
gauges or magnetic fields to measure force or torque.
▪ Hydraulic Dynamometers: Use fluid pressure to measure
force or power.
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Torque Measurement - Dynamometers

Types of Dynamometers

Absorption Dynamometer Transmission Dynamometer

Belt
Prony Brake Epicyclic
Transmission
Dynamometer Dynamometer
Dynamometer

Rope Brake Torsion

Dynamometer Dynamometer

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Prony Brake Dynamometer
❖ Mechanical Absorption Dynamometer where the block
brakes absorbs the energy
❖ A Prony brake dynamometer is a simple device used to
measure the power output of an engine or motor.
❖ It operates on the principle of creating a braking force
through friction and measuring the torque produced.
Components:
❖ Brake Wheel or Drum: Attached to the rotating shaft of
the engine or motor.
❖ Brake Band or Shoe: A friction band or shoe is
wrapped around the drum.
❖ Lever Arm: Connected to the brake band, with a load
applied at a known distance from the centre of the drum.
❖ Spring Balance or Scale: Measures the force applied
by the lever arm.

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Prony Brake Dynamometer
Operation:
❖ Friction Application: The brake band or shoe is
tightened around the drum, creating friction and
generating a braking force.
❖ Torque Measurement: As the drum rotates, the friction
force generates torque. This torque is balanced by the
force applied at the end of the lever arm.
❖ Force Reading: The spring balance or scale measures
Brake 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷 = 𝟐𝝅 ∗ 𝑻 ∗ 𝑵/60
the force applied at the lever arm.
❖ Power Calculation: The power output can be calculated where,
using the drum’s torque and rotational speed (RPM). • T – torque; N – Rotational Speed
• Torque (T) - Force (F) or weight (W) *
Applications: Lever ARM Length (L)
❖ Used in engine testing to measure brake horsepower (BHP). • N – rpm of the drum
❖ Suitable for small to medium-sized engines and motors.
❖ Often used in educational settings for demonstrations and experiments due to its simplicity.
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Torsion Dynamometer
❖ A torsion dynamometer is a device used to measure the
torque of rotating machinery and under the class of
transmission type dynamometer
❖ It works on the principle of measuring the twist or
torsion in a shaft, which is directly related to the torque
applied.
❖ Torque is directly measured using resistance strain
gauges – Torque Meter
❖ Torque is measured by measuring the angle of twist in
the shaft - Torsion Meter
Components:
Shaft: The rotating component whose torque is to be measured.
Strain Gauges: These are affixed to the shaft and measure the strain caused
by the torque.
Signal Processor: This converts the strain gauge readings into torque values.
Data Display/Recorder: Displays or records the torque measurements.
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Torsion Dynamometer - Working
❖ Torsion Measurement: When torque is applied to the shaft, it twists. The amount of twist is
proportional to the torque.
❖ Strain Gauges: These measure the deformation or strain in the shaft due to the torsion.
❖ Electrical Signals: The strain gauges convert mechanical deformation into electrical signals.
❖ Data Processing: These signals are processed to calculate the torque.
❖ Display/Recording: The processed data is displayed on a screen or recorded for analysis.
Where, fs – shear stress induced in the shaft
G – Shear Modulus
 - Shear strain
45 – longitudinal strain at 45 to the axis
 - twist angle in the shaft over a shaft length L
45 may be measured by resistance strain gauges – torque meter or  may
be measured by either electrical or optical means – torsion

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Torsion Dynamometer - Working

Torque Meter

❑ Measurement of twisting force by means

of Strain gauges positioned at 45

❑ These measure the deformation or strain

in the shaft due to the torsion. Slip ring torque
dynamometer

❑ Slip rings and brushes are used to take in

and out the signals from the rotating shaft

❑ Torques over a range of 100 to 100000 N-

cm can be measured.

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Torsion Dynamometer - Working
Torsion Meter - Optical
❑ Due to torque, an angular twist (angular displacement) occurs on the shaft
between its ends.
❑ A shaft is used on which two casting M and N are connected at a known
distance.
❖ A tension strip linking the two castings.
❖ Two mirrors which are fitted and aligned on the castings.
❖ A light beam falling on the mirrors, an optical system and a torque
calibrated scale.
❑ When the shaft is transmitting torque, a relative movement occurs between
castings M and N, and due to this, the mirrors will change position ( partial
inclination between the two mirrors) since they are attached to the castings.
❑ This angular deflection of the light rays is proportional to the twist on the
shaft (relative movement of casting M and N) and hence the torque of the
shaft.
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Torsion Dynamometer - Working
Torsion Meter – Electrical using proximity sensors
❑ A shaft connected between a driving engine and a driven load.
❑ Two slotted discs attached on either side of the shaft.
❑ Transducer (magnetic or photo electric ) to count pulses from the slotted
disc
❑ The teeth produce voltage pulses in the transducers.
❑ No torque: Discs align perfectly, producing zero-time difference in pulses.
❑ Applied torque: Causes displacement of discs, resulting in a time lapse
between pulses.
❑ Time lapse between pulses is proportional to the twist of the shaft and
hence the torque.
❑ Measure the time lapse between pulses.
❑ Calibrate the time lapse to determine the torque value.
1. Torque measurement is achieved through the relative displacement of slotted discs.
2. The time lapse between pulses is a key indicator of applied torque.
3. Calibration is necessary to convert time lapse into torque values.

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Torsion Dynamometer - Applications

❖ Engine Testing: Measuring the torque produced by engines.

❖ Manufacturing: Monitoring the torque in machinery to ensure proper operation.

❖ Research and Development: Studying the performance characteristics of different

mechanical systems.

❖ Quality Control: Ensuring products meet torque specifications.

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Pressure Measurement
❑ Pressure: The amount of force applied to a surface or distributed over it,
measured as force per unit area is the pressure acting on the surface.
❑ The force used to calculate pressure must act at right angle to the surface.
❑ Pressure is strongly influenced by position within a static fluid but, at a given
position, it is independent of direction.
❑ Pressure is unaffected by the shape of the confining boundaries.
❑ High pressure: 1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal
1 atmospheric pressure(1 atm) = 101.325 kPa = 14.696 psi
❑ Low pressure: 1 millibar = 100 dyne/cm2 = 14.5x10-3 psi
1 micron = 10-6m Hg; 1 torr = 1mm Hg

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Types of Pressure
❖ The different types of pressure are differentiated only by the
reference pressure
1. Atmospheric pressure:
❖ The most important pressure for life on earth is the
atmospheric pressure, pamb (amb = ambiens = ambient).
❖ It is created by the weight of the atmosphere which surrounds
the earth up to a height of approx. 500 km.

❖ Up to this altitude, at which the absolute

pressure pabs = zero, its magnitude decreases
continuously.
❖ The atmospheric pressure is subject to
weather-dependent fluctuations, as is only too
well known from the daily weather report.
❖ At sea level, pamb averages 101.325 kilopascal
(kPa).

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Types of Pressure
2. Gauge pressure
❖ Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure
minus atmospheric pressure.
❖ Most liquid pressure gauges use atmospheric pressure as zero point – though its actually, 14.7 psi,
i.e., 1 kg/cm2.
3. Absolute Pressure
❑ The actual total pressure (including the atmospheric) acting on a surface.
❑ It is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric
pressure.
❑ The clearest reference pressure is the pressure zero, which exists in the air-free space of the
universe.
❑ A pressure which is related to this reference pressure is known as absolute pressure. For the required
differentiation from other types of pressure, it is denoted with the index “abs”.

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Types of Pressure
3. Vacuum pressure
❖ Gauges that indicate gauge pressure may be designed to indicate pressures below zero. Such a
gauge is a vacuum gauge. Gauges that indicate absolute pressure can not indicate pressures below
zero, because zero is a perfect vacuum.
4. Differential pressure
❑ The difference between two pressures, p1 and p2, is known as the pressure differential, Δp = p1 - p2.
❑ In cases where the difference between two pressures itself represents the measured variable, one
refers to the differential pressure, p1,2.
❑ In a differential pressure measurement, gauge pressure is the difference between absolute pressure
of the fluid and atmospheric pressure.
5. Static pressure and velocity pressure
❖ When the fluid is in equilibrium, the pressure at particular point is identical in all directions and
independent of orientation. This is ‘static pressure’.
6 . Velocity pressure = total pressure – static pressure
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Types of Pressure
Static Pressure
❖ Static pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid that is either at
rest or flowing, measured in a way that does not include the
fluid's kinetic energy.
❖ It acts equally in all directions (isostatic).

Dynamic Pressure
❖ Dynamic pressure represents the kinetic energy per unit
volume of a fluid. It is the "extra" pressure generated by the
velocity of the fluid.
❖ It acts only in the direction of the flow.

𝑷𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑷𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 + 𝑷𝑫𝒚𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒄

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Core Principles of Pressure Measurement

❖ Differential Measurement: Most pressure instruments function by measuring the difference

between two points of pressure, often using atmospheric pressure as one of the reference
points.
Measurement Methods:
❖ Manometer Method: Using liquid columns to determine pressure.
❖ Elastic Deformation: Utilizing transducers that react to pressure
through physical movement or deformation.
❖ Force Balance: Measuring pressure by balancing the force
produced on a known area with a measurable counter-force.
❖ Vacuum Measurement: Specialized methods dedicated to
measuring pressures below atmospheric levels.
❖ Electrical Conversion: Using transducers to convert pressure into
electrical signals.
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Classification of Pressure Gauges

1. Gravitational transducer 4. Thermal transducer

a) Manometer a) Thermocouple type
b) Dead weight tester b) Pirani gauge
2. Elastic transducer 5. Piezo- electric transducer
a) Bourdon tube pressure gauge 6. Miscellaneous
b) Elastic diaphragm pressure gauge a) McLeod vacuum gauge
c) Bellows type pressure gauge b) Ionisation gauge
3. Electrical transducer
a) Variable resistance type
b) Strain gauge type
c) Variable capacitance type
d) LVDT type

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Selection of Pressure gauge

Low vacuum and ultra high pressure

❑ McLeod vacuum gauge.
❑ Thermal conductivity gauge.
❑ Ionisation gauge.
Very high pressure
Low Pressure
❑ Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
❑ Manometer.
❑ Diaphragm gauge.
Medium and High Pressure
❑ Bulk modulus pressure gauge.
❑ Bourdon tube pressure gauges.
❑ Diaphragm gauge.
❑ Bellows gauge.

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Manometers for Gauge Pressure Measurement
❖ The principle is based on the static balance between the measured pressure and the head of the
liquid column.
❖ Total pressure = Hydrostatic pressure + atmospheric pressure
❖ Types: U-tube, Well type, micromanometer, inclined manometer, Barometer

❖ U-tube manometer is simple in construction, used in laboratory experiments. By a choice of liquids,

wide range of pressure can be recorded.
❖ A transparent glass tube, constructed in the form of U is partially filled with liquid(water/mercury)
❖ Water/mercury do not stick to the tube, their specific weights at various temperatures are known.

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U-Tube Manometer

❑ When there is pressure difference between two ends of a tube, u-tube manometer is useful to
measure that.
❑ One end of the tube is connected to one pressure tap and the other end is connected to other
pressure tap or left open to atmosphere.
P1= ρh1g - ρ1h1g
P2= ρh2g - ρ1h2g
P1-P2 = (ρ-ρ1)(h1-h2)g = (ρ-ρ1)gh
Where ρ – density of fluid in U-tube
ρ1 – density of fluid being measured
h – difference in manometer height
g – acceleration due to gravity.

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Well Type Manometer

❖ The reading of only a single leg is required.

❖ It consists of a very large diameter vessel(well) connected on one side to a very small sized tube.
❖ High accuracy is achieved by setting the zero level of the well at zero of scale before each reading is
taken.

Well type manometer

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Inclined Manometer

❖ Its leg is inclined to the vertical axis by

some angle (say 10 ◦).
❖ The inclination is done to expand the
scale, thereby to increase sensitivity.
❖ Used to measure very small pressure
differences – 1/100 th of an inch of water.

Well type manometer

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Micromanometer
❖ Consists of a well connected to a flexible tube, whose one end
is inclined.
❖ A magnifier is attached to the inclined portion of the tube, a
micrometer is connected to the well for observation.
❖ The instrument is initially adjusted, so that when pressure
in the well and the inclined portion is equal, i.e., P1=P2,
the meniscus is at a reference point – hairline, viewed
through magnifier.
❖ The micrometer is adjusted to well height and the reading
is noted.
❖ Application of an unknown pressure causes the meniscus to move off the hairline, but can be restored
by raising/lowering the well with micrometer.
❖ The difference in the initial & final micrometer reading gives the change in height and hence the
pressure.

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Barometer
❖ Manometers inherently measure the pressure
difference between the two ends of liquid column.
❖ If one end is at zero absolute pressure, then the
difference in height of liquid from zero reference
indicates the absolute pressure.
❖ The barometer is actually a well type absolute
pressure gauge whose pressure range is from
absolute zero to atmospheric pressure, reading in
mm Hg.
❖ Pressure in the evacuated portion may not be
absolute zero, but the vapour pressure of the filled
liquid.
❖ Hence, high vacuum is not measured by this
instrument.
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Manometers
Fluids Used for Manometers
❖ Water, red oil, mercury.
❖ If air pressure is measured and glass length is within limits, water is best manometer fluid. To
minimize freezing/evaporation, kerosene or antifreeze may be used.
❖ Mercury is used when the measured fluid mixes with manometer fluid or if long tube is necessary.
❖ Red oil is used as manometer fluid if it is required to read the manometer from a distant place.
Errors in manometers
a) Temperature effects: density of filled fluid may reduce as its temperature raises giving variation in the
reading.
b) Capillary effect: When same fluid is used in both legs of manometer, the capillary effect is neglected.
Otherwise, use of large bore tubes (over 10mm dia) is effective.
c) Effect of variable Meniscus: High surface tension of mercury makes the meniscus slightly convex.
The low surface tension of water makes its meniscus slightly concave. We should always read the
indication of the center of the meniscus.

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Manometers

Advantages of Manometers Disadvantages of Manometers

❖ simple, time proven ❑ condensation may cause problems
❖ high accuracy, sensitivity ❑ limited range –no over range protection
❖ wide range of filling fluids, with different sp. ❑ large , bulky, not portable
Gravity ❑ need leveling
❖ reasonable cost ❑ measured fluid must be compatible with
❖ suitable for differential pressure manometer fluid.
applications, low pressures

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Dead Weight Tester
❑ A dead weight pressure tester is a primary standard instrument used to calibrate pressure gauges by generating
accurate pressure using known weights.
❑ The setup consists of a pressure gauge (1) connected through the left isolation valve (2) to a pressure chamber
(6) filled with oil. Pressure is produced by placing known dead weights (3) on the piston–cylinder assembly (4).
❑ Oil is supplied initially by the reservoir/priming pump (5), and fine pressure is developed using the hand screw
pump (8).
❑ The floating piston (7) transmits pressure uniformly, while the right
isolation valve (9) controls oil flow.
❑ During operation, the chamber is filled with oil and pressure is built
using the hand screw.
❑ When calibrated weights are placed on the piston, a precise
pressure is generated given by: 𝑃 = 𝑊/𝐴
where W = total applied weight and A = effective piston area.
❑ This known pressure is applied to the test gauge. The piston is allowed to float freely
for accuracy, and the gauge reading is compared with the theoretical pressure. Any
deviation indicates the calibration error of the pressure gauge.
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Elastic Pressure Transducers
❑ The fundamental principle of these transducers is Hooke’s Law, which states that the deformation of an elastic
object is proportional to the force (or pressure) applied to it, provided the material stays within its elastic limit.
❑ Mathematically, this is expressed as: F = k x
where: F is the applied force, k is the spring constant of the material, x is the resulting displacement.
❑ When pressure is applied to the elastic element, it deforms. This deformation is then linked to a pointer on a
scale (for manual gauges) or a secondary electrical sensor (like a strain gauge or LVDT) to provide a digital
output.
❑ Elastic pressure transducers use elastic pressure sensing elements like bourdon tube, bellows, diaphragms and
capsules.
Feature Bourdon Tube Diaphragm Bellows
Pressure Range Very High Low to Medium Very Low to Medium
Sensitivity Moderate High Very High
Durability High Moderate Low (prone to fatigue)
Common Use Industrial Gauges Digital Transmitters Differential Pressure

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Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

❑ Bourdon tube consists of a long thin-walled cylinder of non-circular cross-section, sealed at one end,
made from phosphor bronze, steel, BeCu and attached to a mechanism that operates the pointer.
❑ The other end of the tube is fixed and open to the
applied pressure.
❑ The tube is soldered/welded to a socket through
which pressure connection is made.
❑ As the fluid under pressure enters the Bourdon tube, it
changes the oval section of the tube into a circular
one, and this tends to straighten out the tube.
❑ The resulting movement of the free end of the tube
causes the pointer to move over the scale.
❑ Actually, the tip of the Bourdon tube is connected to a
segmental lever through an adjustable length link. C-type Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
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Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
❑ The segmental lever has a gear rack which meshes with to a pinion mounted on the spindle.
❑ The segmental lever is suitably pivoted and the spindle carries a pointer.
❑ A hairspring is sometimes used to fasten the spindle to the frame (to avoid
loose meshing, backlash).
❖ Range: 0-15 psig to 0-100 000 psig; 0 to 30 inches Hg(vacua)
❖ Other than C- shape, it can be of Helical type, Spiral type
❖ Bourdon tubes are made of a number of materials, depending upon the
fluid and pressure for which its used. They must possess good elastic and
spring characteristics.
Adjustments:
❑ Multiplication adjustment – The small movement of the tip is linear and
is matched with the rotation of the pointer. The multiplication factor and
can be adjusted by the size of the levers.
❑ Angularity – When the approximately linear motion of the tip is converted
into circular motion, one-to-one correspondence may not occur. Distortion
results and is termed as angularity.
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Bellow Pressure Gauge
❖ Bellow pressure gauges are used for the measurement
of absolute pressure (normal & low).
❖ These are more sensitive than Bourdon tube gauges.
❖ It is generally used for the range down to 155.1 mm Hg
(3 psi). It may be used for even lower pressures up to
40 mm Hg by making the bellows large enough.
❖ The bellows are made of an alloy which is ductile, has
high strength and retains its properties over long use
i.e. has very little hysteresis effect.
❖ The materials used are phosphor bronze, stainless
steel, copper alloy and brass alloy.
❖ Bellows are used in two forms. In one arrangement
static (absolute or gauge) pressure and other
differential pressure are measured.
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Bellow Pressure Gauge
❖ Bellows: A thin-walled, flexible metallic cylinder with deep
convolutions that expand axially when pressurized.
❖ Case: The outer housing that protects the internal assembly.
❖ Spring: A control or "opposing" spring placed inside the bellows to
provide a restorative force, ensuring the movement is proportional
to the applied pressure.
❖ Linkage System: Comprising a Connecting Link and a Lever (or
sector arm) that translates the bellows' vertical movement to the
gear mechanism.
❖ Gear Mechanism: Includes a Sector Gear and a Pinion Gear. The
pinion is attached to the Pointer, which rotates across the Scale.
❖ Hairspring: A small tension spring on the pinion gear that
eliminates "backlash" or mechanical play in the teeth for a steady
reading.
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Bellow Pressure Gauge - Working

❖ It is made of metallic bellows enclosed in a shell and connected to

pressure source.
❖ Phosphor bronze is the commonly used material for bellows and
the springs are of carefully heat treated metal.
❖ A rod resting on the bellows transmits the motion to a pointer.
Scale
❖ Pressure acting on the outside of the bellows compresses the
bellows and moves its free end against a spring force.
❖ Pressure is applied to one side of the bellow and the resulting
deflection is counterbalanced by a spring to indicate specific Bellows
gauge pressure.
❖ The displacement of the free end moves the rod, which rotates
the pointer across a calibrated scale. Pressure Entry
❖ They are sensitive and useful in signaling and tripping devices.
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Differential Bellow Pressure Gauge

❑ In the differential arrangement, the differential pressure is indicated.

❑ In this device, one pressure is applied to the inside of
one sealed bellow while the other pressure is applied
to the inside of another sealed bellow.
❑ By suitable linkage and calibration, the pressure
difference is indicated.
❑ For larger static pressure (2000 psi) and larger
differential pressure(50 psi), bellows of differential
gauges are used.
❑ They deliver high force, adaptable for
absolute/differential pressure measurement.
❑ They needs ambient temperature compensation.

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Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

❖ Diaphragms are widely used for pressure measurements

particularly in a very low ranges (0 to 4 mmHg).
❖ They can be flat, corrugated or dished plates and the choice
depends on the strength and amount of deflection desired.
❖ It is used for gauge pressure and draft measurements.
❖ With suitable modifications, it can be made to
cause changes in electrical circuits, thus
converting pressure movements to electrical
signals for recording.
❖ In high precision instruments the diaphragms are
generally used in a pairs, back to back, to form an
elastic capsule.
❖ Metallic and slack are two types of diaphragm. Metallic diaphragm gauge

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Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

Metallic Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

❖ A thin flexible diaphragm, made of brass/bronze, with an attached
pointer.
❖ The pressure acting against the effective area of diaphragm causes
Scale
deflection in it, limited by its spring quality.
❖ The motion of the diaphragm operates an indicating instrument.
❖ It can be adapted for installation in moving equipment.
Diaphragm

A pile of pressure capsules with

corrugated diaphragms in an
aneroid barograph
Pressure Entry
(for altitude measuring)
Metallic diaphragm gauge
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Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
Slack Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
❑ The gauge is made of rubber or other highly flexible
materials.
❑ It features a "slack" diaphragm, which allows for significant
physical movement in response to minimal pressure
variations.
❑ To achieve high sensitivity, it is often designed with a large
surface area and paired with a weak spring.
❑ It is specifically used to measure pressures below atmospheric levels (vacuum measurement).
❑ The gauge operates within the full range from atmospheric pressure to a perfect vacuum, which is
14.7 psi.
❑ When properly configured with a large area and weak spring, it can measure extremely low pressures
ranging from 0.01 to 0.4 mm Hg.
❑ It maintains a high level of precision for low-pressure applications, typically within 1–2% accuracy.
❑ They possess over range capabilities, adaptable to differential and absolute pressure measurement.
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Capsule Pressure Gauge

❖ Measurement of Vacuum – below atmospheric.

❖ It is possible to obtain pressures from 100 m bar to 10 m bar.
There is no single transducer that covers the full range.
❖ Down to 1 mbar, manometers and diaphragm type
transducers may be used.
Capsule Pressure Gauges
❑ Capsule gauges are specialized elastic transducers designed for high-sensitivity measurements that
exceed the capabilities of standard bellows or Bourdon tubes.
❑ A capsule is formed by joining two corrugated diaphragms at their edges.
❑ Beryllium Copper (BeCu) is the preferred material due to its excellent elastic properties and
resistance to fatigue.
❑ This "back-to-back" diaphragm arrangement allows for greater displacement than a single diaphragm,
making it more sensitive.
❑ They are used for low pressure measurements with high accuracy.
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Capsule Pressure Gauge – Operating Principle

❖ Capsule gauges can be configured to measure different types

of pressure, most notably absolute pressure.
❖ Firstly, the capsule is evacuated and sealed to create a zero-
pressure reference.
❖ The capsule is housed within an air-tight instrument case.
❖ The process pressure is admitted directly into the case,
acting on the outside of the capsule.
❖ Variations in pressure cause the capsule to Feature Specification
expand or contract (change dimensions). Measurement Range 0.5 mbar to 1000 mbar

❖ This dimensional change is transmitted Primary Advantage

High accuracy for low-pressure
measurements
through a series of precision linkages to a
Scientific and industrial vacuum
Common Use
pointer on a calibrated scale. monitoring where sensitivity is critical

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McLeod gauge
❖ The McLeod gauge is a specialized instrument used for measuring vacuum
(very low pressures) by utilizing the principle of gas compression.
❖ It is typically used for pressures from 10 mbar down to 10-3 mbar.
❖ Specialized designs can measure as low as 0.05 microns (0.00005 torr).
❖ Due to its accuracy, the McLeod gauge serves as the primary standard for
calibrating other low-pressure gauges.
Construction:
❖ The gauge consists of several key glass and fluid components:
❖ Bulb and Reservoir: A glass bulb is connected to a mercury reservoir (G).
❖ Capillary Tubes: Two tubes are used: a closed capillary tube (where gas is
compressed) and an open reference capillary tube (A).
❖ Inlet (B): The point where the gauge is connected to the unknown gas
pressure.
❖ Cut-off Point: A specific junction where the rising mercury traps the sample
gas.
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McLeod gauge - Working
❑ The gauge operates by compressing a large volume of gas into a much
smaller volume, thereby amplifying the pressure so it can be measured
with a mercury manometer.
❑ Initial State: The gauge is connected to the unknown pressure source at B,
allowing the gas to fill the bulb and tubes down to the mercury level.
❑ Trapping the Gas: Mercury is pumped up from reservoir G. Once it rises
above the cut-off, it traps a specific volume of gas inside the bulb.
❑ Compression: As mercury continues to rise, it forces the trapped gas into
the small closed capillary tube, compressing it significantly.
❑ Measurement: The mercury is raised until it reaches the zero reference
line in the closed tube. Because of the compressed gas, the mercury in
the open capillary (A) rises to a higher level.
❑ Differential Head: The difference in height (H) between the two columns is
directly related to the initial unknown pressure.
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McLeod gauge - Working

❑ The unknown pressure is calculated based on the geometry of the gauge and the displacement of the
mercury.

❑ The measurement follows the equation:

where:

P: Measured (unknown) pressure.

K: Gauge constant, determined by the internal geometry.

H: Difference in height between the two mercury columns.

Ho: Height of the top of the closed tube above the reference mark.

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Ionization Gauge

❑ It measures density of gas.

❑ As per Boyle’s law, at constant temperature, the ratio of pressure of two gases is equal to
ratio of their two densities.
❑ P1/P2 = ρ1/ρ2
❑ Ions are produced from a gas enclosed in a chamber. These ions are attracted towards a
negatively charged plate and deliver their charge, giving electric current proportional the
number of ions arriving in a given period of time.
❑ Number of ions is proportional to density of gas inside the chamber. Thus pressure is
measured proportional to density.
❑ [Link] ionization gauge
❑ [Link] filament ionization gauge

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Ionization Gauge

❑ Alphatron ionization gauge - a stream of alpha particles are

produced from a radioactive source.

❖ Hot filament ionization gauge – a

stream of electrons, produced
from a red-hot filament are
attracted towards a positively
charged grid of wire, Positive ions
produced due to collision of
electrons with gas molecules are
attracted towards negative plate.

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Ionization Gauge

Advantages of Ionization Gauge

❖ It is used for measurement of wide range of pressure (10⁻³ to 10⁻¹¹ mm of Hg).
❖ Constant sensitivity for a given gas over wide range of measurement.
❖ Fast response to pressure changes.
❖ Possibility of process control and remote indication.
Disadvantages of Ionization Gauge
❑ High cost and complex electrical circuit.
❑ Its calibration varies with the gas.
❑ Decomposition of gas may take place by hot filament (cathode).
❑ The filament, if hot, can burn out quickly, if exposed to air.
❑ It is required to protect gauge by cut out in case of system leak or break.
❑ Contamination of gas, whose pressure is to be measured.

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Thermal conductivity gauge

❖ Thermal conductivity gauge measures pressure by measuring the ability of gas to conduct heat.
❖ The conductivity of gas does not change when pressure changes, until the pressure drops below
about one torr. As the pressure continues to drop, the conductivity of the gas drops until it loses the
ability to conduct heat.
❖ At low pressure ( 10-4 torr to 10-2 torr) the conductivity of gas has direct relationship to its pressure.
❖ A wire filament is enclosed in a chamber, voltage applied – makes it hot & increases its resistance.
❖ Heat is removed by conduction, radiation – until filament reaches equilibrium temperature.
❖ With a constant voltage, any change in pressure causes change in conductivity of gas, hence of
equilibrium temperature/ resistance.
❖ Classified into two types:
[Link] gauge and [Link] gauge

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Pirani Gauge
❖ Pirani gauge invented by Marcelo Pirani, 1906
❖ It measures 10-3 to 10-6 bar or 1mmHg
Construction:
❖ A Pirani gauge is a device used to measure vacuum pressure and consists of the
following components:
1. Sensing Element (Filament): A fine metal wire (usually platinum or tungsten) acts as
a resistive element that gets heated when current passes through it.
2. Wheatstone Bridge Circuit: The sensing filament is part of a Wheatstone bridge (a) Pirani gauge W/Cu element
circuit to measure resistance changes accurately.
3. Compensator: Another similar filament is placed in a reference chamber (sealed at a
known pressure) to compensate for environmental variations.
4. Vacuum Chamber Connection: The filament is exposed to the vacuum environment
where pressure measurement is required.
5. Power Supply & Measurement System: The circuit includes a power source, a
voltmeter for zero adjustment, and a milliammeter for output measurement.
(b) operational features
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Pirani Gauge - working
❖ The operation of a Pirani gauge is based on the change in heat loss due to gas conduction at different
pressures. The sequence of operations is as follows:
1. Heating the Filament: A fine wire is heated using a small electrical current.
2. Heat Dissipation: The filament loses heat through conduction to surrounding gas molecules. At higher
pressures, more molecules interact with the filament, increasing heat loss. At lower pressures, fewer
molecules interact, reducing heat loss.
3. Resistance Change Measurement: The resistance of the
filament changes as its temperature changes due to
varying heat dissipation.
4. Bridge Circuit Response: The Wheatstone bridge circuit
detects this resistance change and converts it into an
electrical signal that corresponds to the vacuum pressure.
5. Calibration and Readout: The output is calibrated to
display pressure readings in appropriate units.
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Thermocouple gauge
❖ The thermocouple vacuum gauge consists of the heater
element and a thermocouple.
❖ Both the heater element and the thermocouple are housed in a
glass or metal envelope; they are in contact as shown in figure
❖ The thermocouple gauge works on the same basic principle as
the Pirani gauge.
❖ The only difference is that the filament temperature is measured
by a thermocouple.
❖ If the density of the surrounding medium is high then its thermal
conductivity also will be high.
❖ This will cause the element to dissipate heat faster and hence
the temperature of the element is low for a given current flow.
❖ The filament may get coated with organic vapours, changing its
heat transfer mode/ability.

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Electric pressure transducers
❖ An electric pressure transducer is a sensor that converts applied pressure into a proportional
electrical signal (voltage, current, or frequency).
Basic Working Principle
❖ Pressure is applied to a sensing element (e.g. diaphragm).
❖ Mechanical deformation occurs.
❖ The sensing element converts deformation into an electrical signal.
❖ Signal is conditioned and output for measurement/control.
Common Types
❑ Strain gauge (piezoresistive)
❑ Potentiometric
❑ Capacitive
❑ Piezoelectric
❑ Inductive / LVDT-based

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Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer
❖ They have good accuracy, stability, overrange capacity, shock & vibration resistance, speed of response.
❖ They have no moving parts, adaptable to electrical systems
❖ Range: vacuum to 200,000 psi.
❑ Figure shows a bridge circuit
with four strain gauges, Rsg1,
Rsg2, Rsg3 and Rsg4.
❑ Two strain gauges, Rsg1 and
Rsg4 are mounted so that
increasing pressure increases
(a) Strain gauge transducer with
their resistance. diaphragm element

❑ Strain gauges Rsg2 and Rsg3 are mounted so that increasing pressure
decreases their resistance.
❑ A change in temperature affects all the four strain gauges in the same way,
(b) Strain gauge bridge circuit resulting in no change in the pressure indication.

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Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

❑ At balance, when there is no pressure, no current flows through

the galvanometer G, and hence there will be no deflection in the
galvanometer.
❑ As soon as the pressure is applied, the strain gauge stretches
or compresses accordingly and the bridge circuit is unbalanced
due to the change in resistance of the strain gauges.
❑ Thus, a current flows in the galvanometer, which is measured by the deflection of the galvanometer.
❑ These changes affect the output of the bridge circuit, which indicates a change in measured pressure.
❑ Now, this change in output voltage may be calibrated for the pressure change.

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Potentiometric Pressure Transducer

❖ Figure shows a diagram of a potentiometric pressure

transducer in which the sensing element is a Bourdon
tube.

❖ An increase in pressure makes the Bourdon tube

straighten out partially.

❖ This motion causes the linkage to move the wiper

across the winding on the potentiometer. Potentiometric pressure
transducer

❖ As the wiper moves, it increases the resistance

between terminals A and C, which is equivalent to the
pressure sensed by the Bourdon tube.

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Capacitive Pressure Transducer
❖ It consists of a fixed plate and a movable plate which is free to move as the
pressure applied changes.
❖ According to the change in pressure the movable plate also changes its position,
due to which the distance d is changed.
❖ With an increase in pressure, the distance d becomes less, due to which the
capacitance C is increased (as C ∝ 1/d).
❖ With a decrease in pressure, the distance d increases and thus capacitance C is
decreased.
❖ This change in capacitance can be calibrated to measure the change in
pressure.
❖ In place of a movable plate a diaphragm may be used, as shown in Figure,
which expands and contracts due to change in pressure.
❖ The diaphragm plate acts as a movable plate of a capacitor. A fixed plate is
placed near the diaphragm.
❖ These plates form a parallel plate capacitor which is connected as one of the
arms of a bridge.
❖ Any change in pressure causes a change in distance between the diaphragm
and fixed plate, which unbalances the bridge.
❖ The voltage output of the bridge corresponds to the pressure applied to the Diaphragm Capacitive pressure
diaphragm plate. transducer
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Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

❖ When pressure is applied on piezoelectric crystals(quartz) an electric charge is generated.

❖ There are 40 such crystals (sintered BaTiO4, tourmaline, Rochelle salt etc.)
❖ Pressure is transmitted by a diaphragm to the crystal and its signal is given to charge amplifier.
❖ A second piezo crystal compensates for acceleration of the device during use (vibration).
❖ The total signal is given to a difference amplifier that subtracts the pressure alone.
❖ These transducers are used where pressure is high but changes rapidly, ex., pressure in the cylinder
of gasoline engine, compressors, rocket motors, etc.
❖ Range: 1-50,000 psi.
❖ They are active sensors (no external supply required)
and good in high-frequency response. But they can not
measure steady pressure.
❖ They respond only to changes in pressure.
❖ Temperature compensation is required. Piezoelectric pressure transducer

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Reluctance Pressure transducer
❑ When the pressure to be measured is applied to the bellow, the bellow deflects
(expands upwards) and this movement is given to the rod of the core of LVDT.
❑ With this, the core will be lifted up and more voltage will be induced in the upper
part of the secondary winding.
❑ Therefore, a positive voltage is generated at the output (i.e., Eo = es1 - es2).
❑ In other words, when the core moved upwards from the null position a positive
amount of voltage is generated at the output. This positive output will indicate
applied pressure.

❖ Now when the pressure is decreased the

bellow contracts (comes downwards) and
the core comes down from the null position
causing more voltage to induce in
secondary winding 2, which is denoted by
es2, and the net output voltage is negative
which indicates the decrease in pressure. Reluctance pressure transducer (Bellow type LVDT)
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Reluctance Pressure transducer

❖ It is also called force balance pressure transducer.

❖ Pressure flexes the diaphragm and moves the short end of force beam
and hence the long end moves a magnetic material in the reluctance
sensor.
❖ The sensor output is used to activate a motor to put back the force
beam in its position.
❖ Range: Below 500 psi
❖ No response to high frequency pressure oscillations.

Reluctance pressure transducer

(Servo pressure transducers)

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Reluctance Pressure transducer
❖ When differential pressure (P₁ − P₂) is applied to the pressure cell, the
diaphragm deflects. This deflection moves the force beam about the pivot.
❖ The small movement of the beam is detected by the reluctive detector, which
produces an electrical (AC) error signal.
❖ This signal is processed by the AC/DC converter and then amplified by the
amplifier.
❖ The amplified signal drives the induction motor, which applies a restoring force
to the force beam.
❖ The system operates on the force-balance principle: the motor continues to
apply force until it exactly balances the force produced by the pressure
difference on the diaphragm. At this balanced condition, the beam returns to
its null position.
❖ The motor drive (or output voltage V output) required to maintain this balance
is directly proportional to the applied differential pressure, and this serves as
the measurement output. Reluctance pressure transducer
(Servo pressure transducers)

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Temperature Measurement

❑ Temperature of a substance is a measure of the hotness or coldness of that substance.

❑ If two bodies are placed in contact then heat tends to flow from a body at a higher
temperature to a body at a lower temperature.
❑ In temperature measurement one should select the most appropriate method of
temperature measurement for a particular use, considering the points such as
▪ sources of error,
▪ limitations, precautions to be observed,
▪ the exact location of the sensing probe,
▪ the steps to check the accuracy of instruments before, during and after the
measurement.

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Temperature Measurement
International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS)
❑ An international practical temperature scale (IPTS) was adopted in 1927 and revised in 1948 by all
industrialized nations to ensure accurate and uniform temperature measurements.
❑ The fixed points, at 760mm Hg, that are used for calibration of thermometers are:
▪ Boiling point
▪ Freezing point
❑ Triple point – a particular temperature and pressure at
which three different phases (solid, liquid, and gas) of one
substance can exist in equilibrium.
❑ Triple point can occur with two solid phases and one liquid
phase, with two solid phases and gas phase or with three
solid phases.
❑ Secondary fixed points
❑ Freezing point of antimony : 630.74˚C and
❑ Triple point of hydrogen : -259.34˚C
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Temperature Scales

❖ At least two fixed points are required which are constant in temperature and can be easily
reproduced such as:
▪ the lower fixed point, or ice point (for distilled water at 760mm Hg)
▪ the upper fixed point, or steam point (distilled water at 760mm Hg)
❖ In order to graduate a thermometer between the fixed points, the temperature interval
between the fixed points(fundamental interval) is divided into a number of equal parts.
Different temperature scales are:
▪ Fahrenheit and Centigrade Temperature Scales
▪ Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales
▪ Reaumur Scale

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Fahrenheit and Centigrade Temperature Scales

❖ The scales are based on the fact that the melting point of ice and boiling point of water occur at fixed
temperatures at standard atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi).
Fahrenheit Scale (°F)
❖ Introduced by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in 1709.
❖ Reference points: Absolute zero is 459.67 °F. Water freezes (ice point) at 32 °F and the boils (steam
point) at 212 °F.
❖ The temperature interval between ice point and steam point is divided into 180 equal divisions.
Centigrade Scale (°C)
❖ Introduced by Anders Celsius in 1742.
❖ Reference points: Absolute zero is −273.15 °C. Water freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C.
❖ The temperature interval is divided into 100 equal divisions.
❖ Since both scales are linear, temperatures can be converted using:

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Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales

Kelvin Scale (K)

❑ The base unit of thermodynamic temperature in the International System of Units (SI).
❑ Introduced by Lord Kelvin in 1848.
❑ Reference points: Absolute zero is 0 K. Water freezes at 273.15 K and boils at 373.15 K.
❑ The temperature interval is divided into 100 equal divisions.
❑ The centigrade scale can be converted into Kelvin by using the equation, K=°C + 273.15
Rankine Scale (°R or °Ra)
❑ An absolute thermodynamic scale based on the Fahrenheit scale.
❑ Reference points: Absolute zero is 0 °R. Water freezes at 491.7 °R and boils at 671.7 °R.
❑ The interval is divided into 180 equal divisions.
❑ Temperature in ° F can be converted into °R by, °R= °F + 459.69; or °R= 1.8 × K.
Note: The Kelvin and Rankine scales are called absolute temperature scales because they use
absolute zero as one of their reference points.
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Reaumur Temperature Scale

Reaumur Scale (°Re or °R)

❑ Introduced by René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur in 1731.
❑ Reference points: Water freezes at 0 °Re and boils at 80 °Re
❑ To convert Réaumur to Celsius, the formula is °Re = 0.8 × °C
❑ The scale in often used in alcohol industries.

Types of temperature measurements

❖ Thermometers can be classified based on the physical principle they use to measure temperature.
1. Expansion (Mechanical thermometers (Bimetallic thermometer and liquid in glass thermometer)
2. Filled system (Pressure) thermometers (Gas filled thermometers, liquid filled thermometers,
mercury filled thermometers, vapour pressure thermometers)
3. Electrical temperature instruments (resistance thermometer, thermocouple, thermistor)
4. Radiation Thermometers (Pyrometers)

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Temperature Measurement
Classification of Thermometers: Temperature
❑ Expansion thermometers Measurement
▪ Bimetallic thermometers
▪ Liquid in glass thermometers Non-electrical Electrical Radiation
❑ Pressure thermometers Methods Methods Methods
▪ Liquid filled thermometers
▪ Vapour pressure thermometers Change in Variable
Pyrometer
▪ Gas filled thermometers physical state Resistance
❑ Electrical Thermometers
▪ Resistance thermometers (RTD, Thermistor) Change in Self-Generating
Physical / Stroboscope
▪ Thermocouple Properties Thermoelectric
❑ Radiation Thermometers
▪ Radiation pyrometers Change in
chemical
▪ Optical pyrometers Properties
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 164
Bimetallic Thermometers

❑ Two basic principles of operation is to be followed in the case of

a bimetallic sensor.
❑ A metal tends to undergo a volumetric dimensional change
(expansion/contraction), according to the change in temperature.
❑ Different metals (Such as: copper, invar, brass, or steel) have
different co-efficient of temperatures.
❑ Rate of volumetric change depends on this co-efficient of
temperature.
❑ At room temperature the strip is flat.
❑ Amount of deflection proportional to sensed heat.
❑ Range from -30C to 550C
❑ Accuracy 0.5% to 1%
❑ Example: Electric Stoves, Electric Iron, Domestic Ovens.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 165
Bimetallic Thermometers - working
❖ The differential expansion of bonded strips of two metals is
utilized in bimetallic elements.
❖ Two strips of metal such as invar and brass are welded
together, each of them having a different coefficient of
thermal expansion.
❖ Whenever the welded strip is heated, the two metals expand
to different lengths as temperature rises.
❖ This forces the bimetallic strip to bend towards the side with
low coefficient of thermal expansion.
❖ The movement of the bimetallic strip is used to deflect a
pointer over a calibrated scale.
❖ The deflection is dependent on the length, thickness of the
strip and temperature.

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Bimetallic Thermometers
Spiral Type
❖ A long bimetallic strip wound into a flat spiral to
increase sensitivity within a compact area.
❖ The inner end is firmly connected to the instrument
housing.
❖ The outer end is attached directly to a pointer.
❖ Very cost-effective and space-saving design.
Spiral Strip bimetallic
❖ The sensor and dial are not separated; the entire
thermometer
unit must be placed within the medium.
❖ Common in refrigerators, freezers, and room
temperature monitoring.

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Bimetallic Thermometers
Pointer (Needle)
Helical Type
❖ Features a bimetallic strip wrapped into a vertical Dial
Scale
helical coil. Locking Nut
❖ Designed to separate the indicator (pointer) from the Outer Sleeve

sensor (coil) for industrial safety and accessibility. Spindle (core shaft)

❖ One end of the helix is fixed to the bottom of a Bimetal spiral

measuring tube (stem).
Fixed end

Helical coil bimetallic thermometer

❖ A rotatable metal rod runs through the coil and connects the
free end to the pointer at the top.
❖ As the tube heats, the helix winds/unwinds, rotating the
central rod to move the pointer over a calibrated scale.
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Liquid In Glass Thermometer
❖ The liquid in glass thermometer, is the most commonly used device to
measure temperature and it is inexpensive to make and easy to use.
❖ The liquid in glass thermometer has a glass bulb attached to a sealed glass
tube (also called the stem or capillary tube).
❖ A very thin opening, called a bore, exists from the bulb and extends down the
centre of the tube.
❖ The bulb is typically filled with either mercury or red-coloured alcohol and is
free to expand and rise up into the tube when the temperature increases, and
to contract and move down the tube when the temperature decreases.
❖ In the Liquid In Glass Thermometers (LIG) the thermally sensitive element is a
liquid contained in a graduated glass envelope.
❖ The principle used to measure temperature is that of the apparent thermal
expansion of the liquid.
❖ The background of the glass tube is covered with white enamel and the front of the glass tube forms
a magnifying glass that enlarges the liquid column and facilitates with reading the temperature.
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Liquid In Glass Thermometer
❑ Based on the apparent thermal expansion of the
liquid or substances. Expands when heated and
contracts when cooled
❑ Consists of a glass bulb, a capillary with a small bore,
Scale.
❑ A thermal sensitive medium such as Mercury or red
colored alcohol is used
❑ Point of reference i.e. a calibration point which is
most commonly the ice point.

❑ Accuracy in the range of 0.005C

❑ Prone to parallax errors.
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 170
Pressure Thermometer

❑ Based on the principle of fluid expansion due to increase in the pressure in

a given volume.
❑ Consists of a large metal bulb instead of a glass bulb, an armored capillary
with a small bore, bourdon tube and a scale.
❑ All liquids, gases or vapour expands when heated and
contracts when cooled.
❑ Variation in pressure is transmitted through capillary tube to the
Pressure Thermometer
bourdon tube.
Class Range ❑ The movement of
I -87 C to 371C bourdon tube is used to
II -184 C to 343C drive a pointer by
III -268 C to 760 C mechanical linkages for
IV -40 C to 649C indicating temperature.
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Resistance Thermometer
❑ Resistance thermometry depends on the unique relation that exists between resistance of an element
and the temperature.
❑ The resistance thermometer is usually in the form of a wire and
its resistance is a function of its temperature.
❑ Material of the wire is usually high purity Platinum.
❑ Two types based on materials:
▪ Metallic Resistance thermometer (RTD) - 𝑅𝛼𝑇
1
▪ Semiconductor Resistance thermometer (Thermistor) - 𝑅𝛼
𝑇

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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

Metallic Resistance Thermometer

➢ Sensors used to measure temperature.
➢ Based on the principle that resistance of
the metal changes with temperature.
➢ Copper, Nickel and Platinum are mostly
used as RTD materials.

➢ RTD consist of a length of fine wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass

core.
➢ The range of temperature measurement is decided by the region, where the resistance temperature
characteristics are approximately linear.
➢ Platinum has a linear range of operation up to 650C, while the useful range for Copper and Nickel are 120C
and 300C respectively. [Link]

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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Construction
❖ Resistance Element, Internal Conductors, Insulated Tube,
Protection Tube and Terminal Head
❖ For industrial use bare wire cannot be used
❖ Needs to be protected from mechanical hazards metal
decomposition and physical damage
❖ The wire is enclosed in a stainless steel well to avoid
mechanical hazards
❖ Heat conducting but electrical insulating materials like
mica is placed in between the well and the resistance
material
❖ The resistance wire should be carefully wound over mica
sheet so that no strain is developed due to length Platinum Resistance Thermometer (RTD – Platinum)
expansion of the wire. also called as PRT

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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

❖ The relation between temperature change and metal resistance is given by:
where, Ro: Original resistance at 0 °C
α: Temperature co-efficient of metal A platinum resistance thermometer
For Copper, α : 0.00427 /°C has a resistance of 220 at 20C.
Rt: Resistance at temperature t °C calculate the resistance at 50C.
❖ RTD has a response time of 0.5 to 5s or more. Given that  at 20C is 0.00392.
❖ Speed of response is governed by thermal conductivity.
Advantages of RTDs include: Disadvantages of RTDs include:
❑ High accuracy ❖ More expensive
❑ Low drift ❖ Need auxiliary apparatus & power supply
❑ High Stability ❖ Less rugged than thermocouples
❑ Wide operating range ❖ Vibration requires special construction
❑ Suitable for precision applications ❖ Error due to self-heating and thermoelectric effect
❑ Suitable for high temperature measurements of resistive elements

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Thermistors (Thermal + Resistors)
❑ Thermistors are semiconductor type resistance thermometers
❑ Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with
increasing temperature
❑ Operation relies on the principle of change in semiconductor
resistance with change in temperature
❑ They have very high sensitivity but highly nonlinear characteristics
❑ The materials used in thermistor are generally mixtures of metal
oxides chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel or doped
polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO 3) and other
compounds
❑ Temperature range measured is 100C to 300C
❑ PTC (Positive Temperature Co-efficient) and NTC (Negative Thermistors: (a) common forms, (b) typical
variation of resistance with temperature
Temperature Co-efficient)
❑ Both PTC and NTC are essential components in electronic circuits that
require temperature monitoring and control.

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Thermistors (Thermal + Resistors)
❑ A Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) refers to a ❖ A Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) refers to materials
characteristic of materials where their resistance increases as whose resistance decreases as the temperature increases. This
temperature rises. This behavior is commonly observed in is the opposite of PTC behavior. NTC thermistors are widely
thermistors, polymers, and other conductive materials that used in various applications because of their temperature-
exhibit temperature-dependent resistance changes. dependent resistance properties.
Applications of PTC materials: Applications of NTC materials:
1. Self-regulating heating elements: In electric heating systems, 1. Temperature sensors: NTC thermistors are used in devices
PTC materials are used to prevent overheating since they that monitor or control temperature, such as thermostats, car
automatically limit the current when the temperature increases. engine management systems, and HVAC systems.
2. Overcurrent protection devices: PTC thermistors are used in 2. Inrush current limiters: In power supplies and transformers,
circuit protection as they can limit current when too much heat is NTC thermistors help limit the initial surge of current when the
generated due to excessive current flow. device is first turned on, as the resistance decreases as it
3. Temperature sensing: In devices where temperature warms up.
monitoring is crucial, PTC materials can be used for detecting 3. Battery management: NTC thermistors help monitor and
temperature changes. manage the temperature of batteries, especially in high-power
4. Battery protection: PTC materials help prevent battery applications like electric vehicles, where controlling temperature
overheating in rechargeable batteries by increasing resistance is critical for safety and efficiency.
and limiting current in high-temperature conditions.
Key Differences (PTC vs. NTC)
PTC NTC
Resistance increases with rising temperature (used for Resistance decreases with rising temperature (used for
overcurrent protection). temperature sensing).

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Thermistors (Thermal + Resistors)
Advantages of Thermistors
❖ Thermistors offer several technical benefits due to their composition and design:
❖ Extremely high temperature sensitivity.
❖ Can be produced in any size or shape.
❖ Good stability.
❖ The small size of the sensing element makes it ideal for measuring temperature at a very specific point.
❖ The time constant is very small because of the low thermal mass involved.
Applications of Thermistors
❑ Because of their sensitivity and compact size, thermistors are used across various industries:
❑ Automotive: Monitoring coolant or oil temperatures inside engines.
❑ Medical & Laboratory: Monitoring incubator temperatures.
❑ Consumer Electronics: Used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor battery packs during charging.
❑ Manufacturing: Monitoring the hot ends of 3D printers.
❑ Food Industry: Maintaining correct temperatures in food handling and processing equipment.
❑ Home Appliances: Controlling operations in toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, and hair dryers.

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Thermocouple
Thermoelectric Sensors - Thermocouple
❑ Thermoelectric thermometry is based on thermoelectric effects or thermo-electricity discovered in the
19th century.
✓ Seebeck effect discovered by Thomas Johann Seebeck in 1821
✓ Peltier effect discovered by Jean Charles Peltier in 1824
✓ Thomson effect discovered by William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) in 1847

Seebeck Effect
Heat is absorbed or produced by
conversion of electricity Conversion of temperature the product of current density
to temperature differences differences into electricity and temperature gradients
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 179
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
❖ Based on Seebeck effect - When two conductors of dissimilar metals are joined to form a circuit, the
two junctions are at different temperatures T1 & T2 and small emfs e1 & e2 are produced at the
junctions. The algebraic sum of these causes a current.
❖ The emf generated can be approximately expressed by the relationship:
e₀ = C₁ (T₁ − T₂) + C₂ (T₁² − T₂²) μV
where, T₁ and T₂ are hot and cold junction temperatures
C₁ and C₂ are constants depending upon the materials.
For Copper / Constantan thermocouple, C₁ = 62.1 and C₂ = 0.045.
❖ Generally, Chromel (90% nickel and 10% chromium) – Alumel (95% nickel, 2% manganese, 2%
aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a thermocouple.
❖ Depending on the combination of materials used for the conductors, thermocouples are classified in
different types - B, J, E, K, etc.

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Thermocouple
Thermocouple

[Link]

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Thermocouple
Thermocouple

[Link]

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Thermocouple

Thermocouple - Laws
❖ Three laws of thermoelectric circuits :
a) Law of homogeneous circuits
b) Law of Intermediate Metals
c) Law of Intermediate Temperatures
The sum of all of the emfs in a thermocouple circuit using two or
more different metals is zero if the circuit is at the same
temperature

❑ A homogeneous wire is one that is physically and chemically

the same throughout.
❑ This law states that a thermocouple circuit that is made with Sum of the emf developed by a thermocouple with its junctions
a homogeneous wire cannot generate an emf, even if it is at at temperatures T1 and T2, and with its junctions at
different temperatures and thicknesses throughout. temperatures T2 and T3, will be the same as the emf developed
❑ Made up of two different materials if the thermocouple junctions are at temperatures T1 and T3.

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Thermocouple
Advantages Disadvantage
❑ Rugged and readings are consistent ❖ Low sensitivity compared to other
❑ Can measure over a wide range of temperature temperature measuring devices
❑ Characteristics are almost linear with an accuracy of about 0.05%
❑ Inexpensive
❑ Wide variety
❑ Self powered
Applications of Thermocouples
❖To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process
❖Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and petroleum refineries
❖Testing of heating appliance safety
❖Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
❖Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
❖Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the steel, iron and
aluminum industry
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Thermocouple – Compensation Circuit
❑ Integrated-circuit temperature transducers are available in both
voltage and current-output configurations. Both supply an output
that is linearly proportional to absolute temperature.
❑ Typical values are one microampere of current per one-degree
temperature change in Kelvin (1 µA/K) and ten millivolts per one-
degree change in Kelvin (10 mv/K).
❑ Except for the fact that these devices provide an output
that is very linear with temperature, they share all the
disadvantages of thermistors.
❑ They are semiconductor devices and thus have a
limited temperature range. One typical application is in
temperature data acquisition systems where they are
used for thermocouple compensation.

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LM35 – IC Temperature Sensor
❑ IC temperature sensors operate based on the temperature dependence of
semiconductor junction voltage.
❑ The change in junction voltage is internally amplified and linearized to provide
analog or digital output proportional to temperature.
❑ They are widely used in electronic systems due to their compact size and ease
of integration.
LM 35 - Features
▪ Can measure temperature ranging from -55°C to 150°C
▪ Output voltage is directly proportional (Linear) to
temperature (i.e.) there will be a rise of 10mV (0.01V) for
every 1°C rise in temperature.
▪ ±0.5°C Accuracy
▪ Low cost temperature sensor
▪ Small and hence suitable for remote applications
▪ Can be interfaced directly to the ADC of a microcontroller
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 46
LM35 – IC Temperature Sensor
Step 1: Temperature Applied Step 5: Microcontroller Reads Value
▪ IC is exposed to environment temperature. Voltage or digital value is converted to temperature.
Step 2: PN Junction Voltage Changes
Inside chip:
▪ A transistor junction senses temperature.
▪ Voltage across junction changes with temperature.
Step 3: Signal Conditioning
▪ The IC contains: Amplifier, Linearization circuit,
and Compensation circuit
▪ It converts raw junction voltage into linear output.
Step 4: Output Generated
Depending on type:
▪ Analog voltage output, Analog current output, and
Digital output (I²C, SPI)
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 46
Evaluation of various Temperature sensors

Property Thermistor Thermocouple RTD IC

Resolution Very high Average High High
Range Small Very broad Broad Limited
-100 ~ +500C -267 ~ 2367C -250 ~ +750 C -50 ~ 150 C
Output Highly non-linear Non linear Almost linear Linear
Accuracy Very high Limited High Limited
± 0.5C
± 0.1C ± 0.01C ± 0.15C
Ruggedness Fragile Very rugged Rugged Fragile
Sensitivity High () 5~80 V/C Low Highest
Self heating Yes No Yes Yes
Cost Low Moderate to High Low (film) Low to Moderate
High (Wire Wound)

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Radiation Thermometer (Pyrometer)

❑ Non-Contact method of temperature measurement called as Pyrometry

❑ Used for measuring temperatures of the body emitting above 650C or above the gold point
1064.43C
❑ Two types of devices
❑ Total Radiation Pyrometer
❑ Selective Radiation Pyrometer

Total Radiation Pyrometer Selective Radiation Pyrometer

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Total Radiation Pyrometer
❑ Receives the heat dissipated by the object and focuses on
the temperature sensitive transducer
❑ The heat radiation being both visible (light, 0.3 to 0.72 m)
and invisible (Infrared, 0.72 to 1000 m) radiations
❑ Construction:
▪ Blackened tube T opened at one end to receive the
radiations emitted by the object
▪ Sighting apparatus consist of adjustable Eyepiece is at
Total Radiation Pyrometer
the other end.
▪ Position adjustable concave mirrors are used to properly
focus the thermal radiations to the detector disc ‘S’.
▪ Detector disc is made up of a blackened foil with
Thermopiles / Resistance thermometer circuits.
❑ Thermoelectric emf / resistance changes produced by the
detector is proportional to the temperature of the body.

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Selective Radiation Pyrometer
❑ The heat radiated from the hot source is measured at a
given wavelength - Planck’s law.
❑ Consist of an image of an object superimposed - lamp
filament, Lens, Red Filter and a sighting apparatus
consist of adjustable Eyepiece.
❑ Current through the filament is proportional to the Selective
brightness temperature of the filament. Radiation
Pyrometer
❑ Consist of an image of an object superimposed - lamp filament, Lens,
Red Filter and a sighting apparatus consist of adjustable Eyepiece.

❑ Observer controls the lamp current until the filament

disappears in the superimposed target image.
❑ Meter reading is proportional to temperature
❑ Used to measure temperature in the range of 850 -
1200C with a accuracy of 5%.

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Flow Measurement

❖ Fluid flow encountered in industry may be:

❖ Clean or dirty, clear or opaque, wet or dry, and erosive or corrosive
❖ Multiphase, Liquid, gas, or slurry
❖ Laminar or turbulent
❖ Low or very high pressure/temperature
❖ Goal: Measure the flow measurement quantities, like velocity, volumetric flow rate, or mass flow rate.
❖ Definition: Flow is the continuous deformation of a fluid substance under the action of shear stress,
characterized by a constant rate of strain rather than a fixed displacement.
❖ Condition for Flow: Fluid flow occurs from a region of higher total energy to a region of lower total
energy, provided a continuous path exists and the energy gradient is sufficient to overcome internal
resistance.

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Flow Measurement
Three fundamental quantities are used to describe fluid flow:
1. Flow Velocity (V)
❖ Linear speed of the fluid at a point in the pipe.
❖ Unit: m/s
❖ Varies across pipe cross-section (parabolic in laminar flow, flatter in turbulent flow)
2. Volumetric Flow Rate 2. Mass Flow Rate
❑ Amount of volume passing per unit time. ▪ Amount of mass passing per unit time.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑄= = 𝐴. 𝑉 𝑚ሶ = = 𝜌AV = 𝜌𝑄
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
❑ Units: m³/s ; L/min; m³/hr ▪ Units: kg/s; kg/hr
❑ Most commonly measured in industrial pipelines Where: ρ = density of fluid;
Note:
A = cross-sectional area of pipe
▪ For incompressible fluids → density ≈ constant
▪ For gases → mass flow rate is more meaningful than volumetric flow rate V = average fluid velocity

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Flow Measurement
Bernoulli’s Principle
❖ As per Bernoulli’s theorem, the sum of pressure head, velocity head and elevation at a point is equal
to their sum at another point in the direction of flow plus the loss due to friction between the two
points.

Assumptions:
▪ The density of the incompressible fluid remains
constant at both points.
▪ The energy of the fluid is conserved as there are
no viscous forces in the fluid. Restriction in pipe → pressure drop → used to measure flow.

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Flow Measurement
From continuity equation: 𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽 Important Terms in Flow
where: Laminar Flow
• Q = flow rate ▪ Smooth flow occurs at low velocity
• A = cross-sectional area Turbulent Flow
• V = velocity ▪ Irregular chaotic flow occurs at
If velocity is known → flow rate is known. high velocity
Reynolds Number:
𝝆𝑽𝑫
𝑹𝒆 =
𝝁
If Re < 2000 → Laminar
If Re > 4000 → Turbulent
Flow Profile in Pipe
Velocity is:
▪ Maximum at center
▪ Minimum at wall
This affects measurement accuracy.

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Flow Measurement
❖ Flow measuring method where flow rate is inferred from a related phenomenon are :
▪ Differential pressure or variable head meters
▪ Variable area meters
▪ Velocity meters
▪ Magnetic meters
▪ Thermal flow meters
▪ Ultrasonic flow meters
▪ Laser Doppler meters
Common Industrial Applications
❖ Water treatment plants
❖ Oil & gas pipelines
❖ Chemical industries
❖ Power plants
❖ Automobile fuel systems
04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 196
Why Flow Measurement is Important?

❑ Process control ❖ Flow meters do NOT measure flow directly.

❖ They measure some physical change caused by flow, such
❑ Billing (water, gas)
as:
❑ Chemical reactions ▪ Pressure change
▪ Velocity change
❑ Fuel efficiency
▪ Force

❑ Power plants ▪ Heat transfer

▪ Electromagnetic effect
❑ HVAC systems From that, flow rate is calculated.

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Selection of Flow Measurement Devices

Flow measurement devices should be designed by following important factors

▪ Devices should consider Fluctuations in fluid flow

▪ Easy Integration with Piping System

▪ High Accuracy of the device is recommended to reduce errors in measurements

▪ High Turn-Down Ratio of flow rate

▪ Low capital and maintenance cost

▪ Sensitivity to Dirt Particles should be minimum

▪ Minimum Pressure Loss due to fitting of flow measurement devices

▪ Low use of mechanical or moving Parts

▪ Devices must be resistant to corrosion and Erosion

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Principles Used in Flow Measurement

❑ Flow sensors work based on different physical principles:

1. Differential Pressure Principle (Bernoulli’s theorem)
▪ A restriction in a pipe produces a pressure difference (ΔP).
▪ Key relation: Flow rate ∝ √(ΔP)
▪ Primary elements: Orifice plate, Venturi tube, Flow nozzle, Pitot tube
▪ Idea: When fluid velocity increases → pressure decreases.
▪ Based on Bernoulli's theorem:
1 2
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
▪ If area decreases: 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 → Equation of continuity.
▪ So velocity increases at throat → pressure drops.
▪ We measure pressure difference and calculate flow. Venturi tube

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Principles Used in Flow Measurement
2. Variable Area Principle 5. Ultrasonic Principle
▪ Flow changes the area through which fluid passes. ▪ Sound waves travel faster with flow direction.
▪ A float moves up until: Upward force = Weight of float ▪ Measure time difference between upstream
▪ At equilibrium: Position of float ∝ Flow rate and downstream signals.
▪ Example: Rotameter ▪ Time difference ∝ Velocity
3. Thermal Principle 6. Mechanical Principle
▪ Heat loss depends on flow rate. ▪ Flow rotates turbine; speed proportional to
▪ Higher flow → more heat carried away. flow rate
▪ Measure change in temperature of heated element. ▪ Example: Turbine flow meter
▪ Example: Thermal mass flow meter Type Based On Example
4. Electromagnetic Principle Differential Pressure Pressure difference Venturi
Variable Area Area change Rotameter
▪ Based on Faraday’s Law.
Positive Displacement Volume trapping Gear meter
▪ When conductive fluid flows through magnetic field: Velocity Type Flow speed Turbine
▪ Voltage induced: 𝐸 = 𝐵𝐿𝑉 Mass Flow Direct mass measurement Coriolis

▪ Voltage ∝ Velocity Thermal Heat transfer Thermal sensor

04-Dec-2025 BABMH202 - Sensors and Signals 200

Variable Head Flow Measurement Devices

❑ Orifice Plate
▪ Thickness ≈ D/50 or d/8 (typically ~13 mm practical range).
▪ Suitable Reynolds number (Re): 5,000 – 100,000.
❑ Secondary Elements (measure ΔP
▪ Simple, low cost, but higher permanent pressure loss.
and convert to signal)
❑ Venturi Tube
▪ Manometer
▪ Used when Re ≥ 150,000.
▪ Bellows tubes
▪ Very low pressure loss and high accuracy.
▪ Force balance meters
▪ Bulkier and more expensive than orifice.
▪ Ring balance meters
❑ Flow Nozzle
❑ Pressure Tap Locations (Orifice
▪ Has smooth elliptical inlet curvature.
meter standard)
▪ Typical Re ≥ 50,000.
▪ Upstream: 1D from plate
▪ Pressure loss and cost between orifice and venturi.
▪ Downstream: 0.5D from plate

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Flow Measurement using Venturi Tube

❖ A Venturi tube is a differential pressure flow meter used to measure the flow rate of fluid in a
pipe.
❖ It works based on: (1) Bernoulli’s Equation and (2) Continuity Equation
❖ Venturi tubes are:
▪ made of C.I or steel,
▪ available in the long form(classic), short form,
eccentric form, rectangular form(air duct
work)
▪ Size: 100mm to 813mm; Flow coefficient(C) =
0.984;
▪ Diameter ratio β=0.3 to 0.75. and Accuracy is
±¼ to ±3%.
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Flow Measurement using Venturi Tube

❖ Venturi tubes consist of

▪ a straight inlet section of the same diameter as the

pipe in which high pressure tap is located,

▪ a converging conical inlet section (19˚ to 23˚),

▪ a cylindrical throat providing a low pressure tap,

▪ a diverging recovery cone (5˚ to 15˚) in which

velocity decreases and velocity head is recovered

as pressure head.
▪ Pressure taps are located at ¼ to ½ of dia of pipe (upstream) and at middle of throat section.

▪ Differential manometer for measuring the pressure head.

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Flow Measurement using Venturi Tube

Basic Principle
When fluid enters:
▪ Area decreases in throat.
▪ Velocity increases.
▪ Pressure decreases.
This pressure difference is used to calculate flow rate.

Recall the basic principle

Continuity Equation
Mass conservation: 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
Bernoulli’s Equation
1
Energy conservation: 𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1
For horizontal pipe: 𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝑉 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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Flow Measurement using Venturi Tube
Flow rate in venturi (using Bernoulii’s equation)
❖ Let the velocity and pressure at the inlet (Sec. 1) are V1 and p1 respectively, while those at the throat
(Sec. 2) are V2 and p2. and z1, z2 are the height of tapping points.
❖ Now, applying Bernoulli’s equation between Sections 1 and 2, we get

❖ where ρ is the density of fluid flowing through the venturimeter.

❖ From continuity, →
❖ where A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of the venturi meter at its throat and inlet respectively.

❖ So

❖ where h1* and h2* are the piezometric pressure heads at sec. 1 and sec. 2 respectively.
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Flow Measurement using Venturi Tube
Step-by-Step Flow of Working
Step 1: Fluid Enters Inlet Step 3: Pressure Drops Step 5: Flow Rate Calculated
Fluid flows in pipe with: Using Bernoulli equation: Discharge formula:
Pressure = P₁ 1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉22 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
Velocity = V₁ 2 2
𝑄 = 𝐴2
Area = A₁ Since: 𝜌
Step 2: Fluid Reaches Throat 𝑉2 > 𝑉1 With correction factor (Cd):
Area decreases: Therefore:
𝐴2 < 𝐴1 𝑃2 < 𝑃1 2Δ𝑃
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2
From continuity equation: Pressure at throat decreases. 𝜌
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 Step 4: Pressure Difference Where:
So: Measured •Q = flow rate
𝑉2 > 𝑉1 A manometer measures: •Cd = coefficient of discharge
Velocity increases. Δ𝑃 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 •ρ = fluid density

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Flow Measurement using Venturi Tube

Why Diverging Section? Disadvantages

After throat: Expensive
▪ Area gradually increases.
Large size
▪ Velocity decreases.
Installation space required
▪ Pressure partially recovers.
▪ Reduces energy loss.
This makes Venturi more efficient than orifice meter. Applications
Advantages Water supply systems
High accuracy Oil pipelines
Low pressure loss
Chemical industries
Suitable for large flow rates
Gas flow measurement
Can measure liquids and gases
HVAC systems

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Flow Measurement using Pitot Tube
❑ A pitot tube can be used to measure fluid flow velocity by converting the kinetic energy in a fluid flow
to potential energy.
❑ They work based on Bernoulli's principle, which relates the speed of a fluid to its pressure.
❑ Design: A pitot tube consists of a long, thin tube with an opening at the front (the "stagnation" point)
and a side hole (or sometimes multiple holes) for measuring static pressure.
Operation:
❖ As fluid (air in aviation) flows toward the tube, it enters the front
opening and is brought to a stop, creating stagnation pressure.
❖ The pressure inside the tube is the total pressure, which
includes the static pressure of the fluid plus the dynamic
pressure (due to the fluid's velocity).
❖ The side hole measures the static pressure of the fluid, which is
the pressure the fluid would have if it were not moving.
❖ By comparing the total pressure and the static pressure, you
Fluid Velocity
can calculate the dynamic pressure and, consequently, the
Measurement
velocity of the fluid.
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Flow Measurement using Pitot Tube
Applications:
1. Aviation: In aircraft, pitot tubes measure airspeed by
determining the difference between total and static
pressure.
2. Meteorology: Used in weather balloons and other
instruments to measure wind speeds at different
altitudes.
3. Hydraulics: In water flow measurements in pipelines
and open channels.
▪ Pitot tubes are critical for accurate speed
measurements in various fields and are often used in
As the V2 = 0 and the elevation of the fluid is conjunction with other sensors and instruments to
same (ρgh1= ρgh2 both are cancelled) ensure comprehensive and reliable data.
▪ While accuracy and range-ability are relatively low, pitot
tubes are simple, reliable, inexpensive, and suited for a
variety of environmental conditions, including extremely
Velocity of the fluid is given by:
high temperatures and a wide range of pressures.

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Flow Measurement using Pitot Static (Prandtl) Tube

❖ The Prandtl tube is a specialized type of pitot tube used to measure fluid velocity. It combines
elements of both the pitot tube and the static pressure measurement to provide more accurate
readings, particularly in high-speed flows or turbulent conditions.
Design: The Prandtl tube typically has two or more holes:
❑ Stagnation Point (Pitot) Hole: This is the front-facing Fluid Velocity
Measurement
hole where the fluid flows directly into the tube and is
brought to a stop. This hole measures the total
pressure.
❑ Static Pressure Holes: Located on the sides or at the
back of the tube, these holes measure the static
pressure of the fluid. Some Prandtl tubes may have
multiple static pressure holes for more accurate
measurements.
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Flow Measurement using Pitot Static (Prandtl) Tube

Advantages:
1. Accuracy: The Prandtl tube design can provide more accurate measurements in turbulent or high-
speed flows compared to a standard pitot tube. The multiple static pressure ports help reduce
measurement errors caused by flow disturbances.
2. Flow Characteristics: It can be particularly useful for measuring flow in ducts or areas where the
flow profile might be non-uniform.
Applications:
1. Aviation: Used in some aircraft to provide more precise airspeed measurements.
2. Wind Tunnels: Common in experimental setups to measure airspeed and flow characteristics.
3. Industrial: Applied in various engineering fields to measure fluid flow in pipes and channels.
▪ Overall, the Prandtl tube is an enhancement over the traditional pitot tube, providing improved
accuracy and reliability in measuring fluid velocities, especially in challenging flow conditions.

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Variable Area Flow Measurement
Differential Head Flow Meters vs Variable Area Flow Meters
▪ In differential head flow meters, the flow restriction size is fixed.
▪ The pressure difference across the restriction changes when the flow rate changes.
▪ In variable area flow meters, the size of the restriction changes automatically.
▪ The restriction adjusts to keep the pressure difference constant even when the flow rate varies.

What is a Rotameter?
A Rotameter is a variable area flow meter in which a float rises in a tapered tube and indicates flow rate.
It works based on: Basic Working Principle
Balance of forces When fluid flows upward:
Gravity ▪ It exerts upward force on float.
Buoyancy ▪ Float rises until forces balance.
At equilibrium:
Drag force
𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

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Variable Area Flow Measurement
❖ A rotameter consists of a vertical tapered tube with a float that can move up or down inside the tube.
❖ The tube is tapered, providing a linear relationship between flow rate and float position.
❖ The space between the float and the inner diameter of the tube forms an annular orifice.
❖ The tube is mounted vertically with the small end at the bottom.
❖ The fluid enters from the bottom of the tube.
❖ It flows upward around the float.
❖ The fluid then exits from the top of the tube.
Main Parts:
Important:
1. Tapered vertical tube
❑ Tube is vertical. 2. Float (bob)
3. Scale markings
❑ Diameter increases upward.
4. Fluid inlet (bottom)
❑ Float moves freely. 5. Fluid outlet (top)

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Flow Measurement using Rotameter - Working
❑ The float rests at the bottom of the metering tube when there is no flow.
❑ The maximum diameter of the float is almost equal to the bore of the
tube.
❑ When fluid enters the tube, the float moves upward.
❑ As the float rises, the annular flow area between the float and the tube
increases.
❑ The pressure difference across the annular orifice is proportional to (flow
area)².
❑ The float moves upward until the lifting force produced by the pressure
difference equals the weight of the float.
❑ If the flow rate increases, the pressure difference and lifting force
increase temporarily.
❑ The float rises further, increasing the annular orifice area, until the lifting force again equals the weight of
the float.
❑ Thus, the pressure difference remains constant, while the annular orifice area changes in proportion to the
flow rate.
❑ If the flow rate decreases, the float moves down to a lower position.
❑ Each float position corresponds to a particular flow rate for a fluid with a given density (ρ) and viscosity (µ).
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Flow Measurement using Rotameter
Buoyant Force (B) Drag Force (Fₑ) In Rotameter — How They Act
What is it? What is it? Three forces act on float:
Buoyant force is the upward force Drag force is the force exerted by 1. Weight (W) → Downward
exerted by a fluid on a body immersed moving fluid on an object due to 2. Buoyant force (B) → Upward
in it. relative motion. 3. Drag force (Fₑ) → Upward
It exists even if the fluid is not moving. It exists only when fluid flows.
Based on Based on Fluid dynamics
Archimedes’ Principle. 1 Equilibrium condition:
𝐹𝑑 = 𝐶𝑑 𝜌𝐴𝑉 2
𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝑔 2 𝑊 = 𝐵 + 𝐹𝑑
Where: Where: So:
•ρf = density of fluid •Cd = drag coefficient 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑊 − 𝐵
•Vf = volume of float •ρ = fluid density
•g = gravity •A = projected area This is the key relation.
Key Points •V = fluid velocity
Key Points Mathematical Concept (Simplified)
Exists even in still fluid Flow rate:
Depends only on fluid density and Exists only when fluid is moving 𝑄 =𝐴×𝑉
displaced volume Depends strongly on velocity Where area changes as float rises.
Increases with square of velocity Since float stabilizes at certain area:
Independent of flow velocity Flow rate directly proportional to float height.

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Flow Measurement using Rotameter

Why Tube is Tapered?

Why Both Buoyance and Drag force Important in
If tube were straight: Rotameter?
▪ Float would rise continuously. If there were only buoyancy:
▪ But because tube diameter increases upward:
Float would rise once and stay.
✓ Area increases.
But drag changes with flow rate.
✓ Velocity decreases.
✓ Drag decreases. Flow increases → drag increases → float rises higher.

✓ Float stabilizes at specific height. So drag determines float position.

So:
Height of float ∝ Flow rate.

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Flow Measurement using Rotameter
❖ In addition to flow rate measurement, rotameters can be equipped with functions such as alarm,
pneumatic or electrical transmission recording, controlling or totalizing.
❖ Acccuracy is ±0.5% to ±10% of full scale. Range: 4000 gpm(920l/hr)
Advantages
(i) Low cost and good range
(ii) Easily equipped with alarm switches, transmitting devices
(iii) It handles corrosive fluids, viscosity immune floats are available
It can be used in light slurry services
It has low pressure requirements
Disadvantages
(i) Glass tube is subject to damages
(ii) It must be mounted vertically
(iii) Its not good in pulsating services
(iv) Generally limited to small pipe sizes
(v) Limited to low temperature.
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Flow Measurement using Anemometer

❑ An anemometer is a device used to measure wind speed and wind pressure.

❑ Invented in 1846 by Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson at Armagh Observatory.
❑ Common Types of Anemometers:
▪ Cup Anemometer
▪ Windmill Anemometer
▪ Hot-Wire Anemometer 4-Cup
Anemometer

Windmill
Anemometer

3-Cup
Hot-Wire Anemometer Anemometer
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Cup Anemometer

Basic Design
❖ Consists of four hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms.
❖ Arms are fixed at equal angles on a vertical shaft.
Working Principle
❖ Wind pushes the cups, causing the shaft to rotate.
❖ The rotation speed is proportional to wind speed.
❖ Counting rotations over time gives the average wind speed.
Operation
❖ Cups are symmetrically arranged on the arms.
❖ The wind hits the hollow side of one cup while blowing on the back of the opposite cup.
❖ This difference in force causes the continuous rotation of the anemometer.

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Cup Anemometer

Improved Design
❖ In 1926, John Patterson (Canada) developed the three-cup anemometer.
❖ Later improvements by Brevoort & Joiner (USA, 1935) improved accuracy.
Design Advantage
❑ Produces maximum torque at about 45° to wind flow. Each cup
generates the greatest turning force when it is about 45° to the
wind direction, producing efficient rotation.
❑ Less drag and obstruction between cups.
❑ The spacing of three cups gives more consistent torque, allowing
smoother and uniform rotation. three-cup
anemometer
❑ Responds faster to wind gusts.
❑ High Accuracy with less than 3% error up to 60 mph (97 km/h).
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Windmill Anemometer
❖ Another type of mechanical velocity anemometer is the windmill or propeller anemometer.
Design
❖ Unlike the cup anemometer (vertical axis), the axis of rotation is horizontal.
❖ The axis must be parallel to the direction of the wind.
Working Principle
❖ Wind causes the propeller blades to rotate.
❖ The rotation speed is proportional to the wind velocity.
Wind Direction Adjustment
❖ Because wind direction changes, the instrument uses a wind vane to keep the propeller facing the wind.
Aerovane Air Meter
❖ Combines a propeller and a tail (vane) on the ❖ Used when air flow direction is constant.
same axis. ❖ Commonly used in ventilation shafts, mines, and
❖ Measures both wind speed and wind direction buildings.
accurately. ❖ Provides reliable airflow measurements.

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Hot-wire Anemometer

❑ Uses a very fine electrically heated wire (usually

tungsten).
❑ The wire is heated to a temperature above the
surrounding air.
Working Principle
❖ Air flowing past the wire cools
it.
❖ The temperature change alters
the electrical resistance of the
wire.
❖ This change in resistance is
used to calculate the air or wind
speed.
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Hot-wire Anemometer

Types of Hot-Wire Anemometers

❖ CCA – Constant Current Anemometer
❖ CVA – Constant Voltage Anemometer
❖ CTA – Constant Temperature Anemometer
Advantages
❑ Very sensitive and precise.
❑ High frequency response (detects rapid wind changes).
❑ Fine spatial resolution.
❑ Applications
❑ Used for studying turbulent airflow.
❑ Common in aerodynamics and fluid flow research.

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Thermal flow meter (Heat transfer flow meter)

❖ Thermal flow meters are commonly used to measure mass flow rate of gases, especially unsteady
flows.
Working Principle
❖ A known amount of heat is added to the flowing fluid.
❖ The temperature rise of the fluid is measured.
❖ The flow rate is calculated using the heat transfer equation:
Q = WCp​(T2−T1)
Where
Q – Heat transferred
W – Mass flow rate of fluid
Cp – Specific heat of the fluid
T₁ – Initial temperature
T₂ – Temperature after heating
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Thermal flow meter (Heat transfer flow meter)

Operation

❑ An immersion heater adds heat to the flowing fluid.

❑ The power supplied to the heater equals the heat transferred (Q).

❑ Power is measured using a wattmeter.

❑ By measuring Q, T₁, and T₂, the mass flow rate (W) is calculated using the heat transfer
equation.

Disadvantages

❑ Sensor and heater may be damaged by corrosion and erosion.

❑ High input power is required when measuring high flow rates.

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Thermal flow meter (Hot wire flow meter)

❑ Used to measure flow rate of gases and liquids using heat

transfer principles.
Construction
❑ Consists of two thermocouples (A and B) connected in series
forming a thermopile.
Hot wire flow meter
❑ A third thermocouple (C) is placed in the output circuit.
❑ The thermopile is heated by an AC power supply.
❑ The whole setup is placed in the fluid stream.
Working Principle
❑ Flowing fluid cools the heated thermopile by convection.
❑ The thermopile reaches an equilibrium temperature and
generates EMF related to flow velocity.
Error correction circuit

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Thermal flow meter (Hot wire flow meter)
Temperature Compensation
❖ Thermocouple C measures the actual gas temperature.
❖ It cancels the effect of ambient temperature on the output signal.
❖ Output Voltage Equation:
Where
E – Generated voltage Hot wire flow meter
C – Instrument constant
K – Thermal conductivity of fluid
Cp – Specific heat
ρ – Density of fluid
d – Diameter of heated wire
V – Fluid velocity
Performance
▪ Range: 0.5 cm³/min to 18000 kg/hr
▪ Accuracy: ±2% full scale
▪ Pressure range: Up to 8.3 MPa
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Error correction circuit 227
Laser Doppler Anemometer

❑ Uses a narrow laser beam to measure the velocity of a moving fluid or object.
Working Principle
❑ A laser beam is directed at particles in the flow.
❑ The light is reflected back to the detector.
❑ If the particles are moving, the frequency
of the reflected signal changes.
❑ This change in frequency is called the
Doppler shift.
Advantages Applications
❑ Highly precise velocity measurement. ❖ Fluid dynamics research
❑ Non-contact method (does not disturb the flow). ❖ Aerodynamics testing
❑ Suitable for measuring high-frequency ❖ Turbulent flow measurements
turbulence fluctuations.
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Laser Doppler Anemometer
❖ For a flow whose velocity is to be determine, it is to be noted that the flow should contain small
particles to scatter the light. The particle concentration should be very small.
Operation of Laser Doppler anemometer
1. The laser source sends a beam that is split by a beam splitter into two beams.
2. The two parallel beams are focused by the lens L1 such that they intersect at a point in the test
section were flow ( with particles ) exists. In the region of intersection, interference fringes are formed.
3. The particles (carried along with the flow) that pass through the intersection of the beams scatter the
light from both the beams.
4. The scattered light experiences a Doppler shift in frequency that is directly proportional to the flow
velocity.
5. The light is collected by a photomultiplier tube (PMT). The device is constructed such that the direct
and scattered beams travel in the same optical path so that an interference will be observed at the
PMT that is proportional to frequency shift. This shift then gives an indication of flow velocity.
6. A signal processor is used to retrieve velocity data from the PMT.
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Laser Doppler Anemometer
Advantages of Laser Doppler anemometer
❖ Non-intrusive (does not disturb the flow).
❖ Measures velocity directly.
❖ Very high accuracy.
❖ Small sensing volume.
❖ Can measure both gas and liquid flows.
Disadvantages of Laser Doppler anemometer
❑ Requires transparent channels
❑ Cannot be-used on clean flows
Applications of Laser Doppler anemometer
▪ Wind tunnel studies
▪ Blood flow measurement
▪ Sensing of wind velocity
▪ Used in the field of combustion

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