CHAPTER TWO: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

2.1 ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Dear learner, the various elements of communication are briefly described below to help you
understand the process of communication: The process of communication involves five
elements:
 Sender-encoder
 Message
 Medium
 Receiver-decoder
 Feed back
The following figure illustrates how these factors interact in the communication process,
affected by various internal and external conditions and decisions.
Sender: the person who transmits, spreads, or communicates a massage or operates an
electronic device is the one who conceives and initiates the message with the purpose of
informing, persuading, influencing, and changing the attitude, opinion, or behavior of the
receiver (audience listener). He /she decide the communication symbols, the channel, and the
time for sending the message after carefully considering the total situation in which
communication takes place.
Ideas or Thoughts: the raw form of telling the ideas that the sender wants to share with a
receiver by changing them to messages using symbols.
Encoding: is changing the raw idea from its mental form into symbols, that is, patterns of
words, gestures, pictorial forms or signs (physical or sounds) of a specific visual /oral
language. The sender must choose certain words or non verbal methods to send an intentional
message. This activity is called encoding. The words and channels that a communicator
chooses to deliver a message can make a tremendous difference in how that message is
received. Consider the simple act of a manager’s offering feed back to an employee whether
the words are respectful or abrupt and whether the message is delivered in person or in a
memo can make a big difference in how the feedback is received.
Message: It is the information, written, spoke or nonverbal, which is to be sent from one
person to another. Here, the word “person” stands for the two ends of a system, and may
represent an individual, or a group of individuals, or even electronic machines.
The most important characteristic of a message as an element of communication is that it is
organized, structured, shaped, and selective – a product & pre- writing or pre – speaking
stage. It exists in the mind of the sender (communicator)
Medium: is the carrier of the message such as written words, in the form of written
communication, and spoken words and gestures in the form of face-to-face discursion.

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Channel: is the carrier of the medium like a memo or a letter, which carry the written words,
and air, radio, telephone, television etc that carry the spoken words.
Receiver: is the targeted audience of the message. A receiver is any person who notices and
attachés some meaning to a message. In the best of circumstances, a message reaches its
intended receiver with no problems. In the confusing and imperfect world of business,
however, several problems can occur. The message may never get to the receiver. It might be
delivered but lie buried under a mountain of papers on the recipients’ desk. Even worse, a
message intended for one receiver might be intercepted by another one.
Decoding: This is the act of translating symbols of communication into their ordinary
meanings; however, the total meaning would consist of meanings of the words (symbols)
together with the tone and the attitude of the sender as treated by the structure of the message
and the choice of words used by him (the sender).
Feedback: This is the loop that connects the receiver in the communication process with the
sender, who, in turn, acts as a feedback receiver and, thus, gets to know that communication
has been accomplished. In communication, feedback plays an important role. It helps the
communicator know if there are any corrections or changes to be made in the proposed action.
It also ensures that the receiver has received the message and understood it as intended by the
sender failure to answer a letter or to return a phone call can suggest how the non
communicative person feels about the sender.
2.2. THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication involves participants (a sender & a receiver), message to be sent a medium to
carry the communication signals & the environments in which the message is sent & received.
These elements act & interact in the five-step process. Whether you are speaking or writing,
listening or reading, communication is more than a single act. Instead, it is a chain of events
that can be broken in to five phases as:
 The sender has an idea.
 The idea becomes a message.
 The message is transmitted.
 The receiver gets the message.
 The receiver reacts & sends feedback to the sender.
 The Sender Has an Idea
The sender is the individual who initiates the communication. This person is sometimes
known as the ‘encoder’, two things must happen before the sender wants to send a message:
First, an internal or external stimulus prompts you to send a message. This prompt may arrive
in the form of letters, memorandum, pencilled note, electronic mail, fax, telex, or even casual
conversation in the hallway, Regardless of the stimulus source; it could be a business

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transaction, a written question, a meeting, an interview, or unexpected request for a favour.
Whatever the case might be, you will start thinking of ideas for the message.
It is important to remember, however, that a stimulus alone may not be enough to trigger
communication. The second requirement to send message is sufficient motivation. Think of
times when a manager asks a question, and some of the people present were fairly sure they
knew the answer (were stimulated), but did not respond. Why didn’t they respond? Probably
because they were not sufficiently motivated; i.e. they saw no personal benefit in answering.
Or they saw greater benefit in not answering.
B) The Idea Becomes a Message
After being stimulated & motivated to communicate, the sender must decide how best to
convey a message to the specific receiver. The message is the information or core idea being
transmitted. The process of putting a message into the form in which it is to be communicated
is called ‘encoding.’ It consists of both verbal (written or spoken) symbols & nonverbal
(unspoken) symbols. Verbal information is the part of the message that is heard. Nonverbal
information entails such things as body language & the surrounding environment. Whenever
you compose a message, you need to consider what content to include, how the receiver will
interpret it, & how it may affect your relationship. A simple ‘thank you’ message will be
relatively easy. In contrast, to inform 200 employees of bad news about salaries will require
much more complicated, carefully planned message. To some extent, your choice of words
also depends on your cultural background. When you choose your words, you signal that you
are a member of a particular club and that you know the code. The nature of your code-your
language and vocabulary-imposes its own limits on your message. For example, the language
of a lawyer differs from that of an accountant or a doctor, and the difference in their
vocabularies affects their ability to recognize and express ideas.
C) The Message is Transmitted
The third step in the communication process is physical transmission of the message from
sender to receiver. How will you send your message? Should one write or speak? What is the
appropriate channel for any given message? The channel is the means used to convey the
message. The forms of communication may be verbal, or nonverbal. Beyond that, you can
convey a message by phone, computer, face-to-face exchange, or other medium.
D) The Receiver Gets the Message
The receiver is the individual to whom the message is directed, also known as ‘decoder’.
When the encoder’s message is picked up, the receiver tries to make sense out of it; i.e. to
decode it. Decoding is the process the receiver goes through in trying to interpret the exact
meaning of a message. Everyone tries to read between the lines in an effort to interpret what
the sender means by the message. If you send a letter, the recipient has to read it before she/he
can understand it. If you’re giving a speech, the people in the audience have to be able to hear
you, and they have to be paying attention.

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But physical reception is only the first step. The receiver also has to absorb the message
mentally. In other words, the message has to be understood and stored in the receiver’s mind.
If all goes well, the message is interpreted correctly. The receiver assigns the same basic
meaning to the words as the sender intended and responds in the desired way.
Like transmission problems, problems during the reception phase often have a physical cause.
Competing sights and sounds, an uncomfortable chair, poor lighting or some other irritating
condition may distract the receiver. In some impairment, for example, or even a headache, can
interfere with reception of a message. These annoyances don’t generally block
communication entirely, but they may reduce the receiver’s concentration.
Perhaps the most common barrier to reception is simply lack of attention on the receiver’s
part. We all let our minds wander now and then, regardless of how hard we try to concentrate.
People are especially likely to drift off when they are forced to listen to information that is
difficult to understand or that has little direct bearing on their own lives. If they are tired or
concerned about other matters, they are even more likely to lose interest. Is the
communication process complete once the receiver has the message?
The Receiver Reacts & Gives Feedback to the Sender
Feedback is the receiver’s response to a message. It is the final link in the communication
chain. However, the feedback response involves a reversal of the communication process so
that the receiver now becomes the sender & the sender becomes the receiver. After getting the
message, the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. The
signal may take the form of a smile, a long pause, a spoken comment, a written message, or
an action. Even a lack of response is, in a sense, a form of response.
Feedback is a key element in the communication process because it enables the sender to
evaluate the effectiveness of the message. It provides guidance for the next message that you
send to the receiver. If your audience doesn’t understand what you mean, you can tell by the
response and refine the message. Feedback plays an important role by indicating significant
communication barriers: differences in background, different interpretations of words, and
differing emotional reactions. So when the receiver of the message has made feedback and the
sender is sure that the message has been communicated in the way intended, we say
communication has existed.
Therefore, from the above phases, you can think of communication as a process consisting of
identifiable links, with ultimate objective of influencing behavior, attitudes, & beliefs. Each
element of the communication process is critical: the sender, encoding, channel, the receiver,
decoding, & feedback. The communication process is illustrated in the figure below.

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 Fig.2 Process of Communication
Phasepp1 C Phase 6

The sender has an idea H Receiver sends feedback

N Phase 5
Phase 2
N Receiver interprets the
Sender transforms idea
message (decoding)
into a message E

L Phase 4

Phase 3 Receiver gets the

message
Sender transmits the
A
message
N

D
The process is repeated until both parties have finished expressing themselves. To say a given
communication is effective each step should be successful.

2.2 Principles of Effective Communication

Effective Communication
Effective communication is the act of influencing and inducing others to act in the manner
intended by the speaker or writer. Effective communication ensures that all persons and
organizations understand the message sent. They also are more likely to respond favorably to the
message if it appears to be reasonable and fair to both the receiver and the business.
Communication plays a major role in employer-employee relationships in any organization. It
also affects the relationships among members on the management team. Although effective
communication does not guarantee success of a business, its absence usually assures problems. A
communication problem may soon become a crisis or it may linger on for years.
Benefits of Effective Communication:
The following can be the benefits of effective communication:
 Steady Workflow: The first benefit of effective communication is the steady
workflow as in organization if the message is completely conveyed and received it
will results in positive feedback of steady workflow.
 Problem Solutions: Effective business communication helps in providing solutions
to any problem. It helps in developing relationships which make easy to find solution
if any problem arises.

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  Achieving Goals: Organizational goals can only be attained through effective
business communication. It makes the business relations more strong which enhance
opportunities for any organization.
 Enhance Productivity: It enhances productivity of both monetary and human capital
in terms of performance. People get clearer picture of what they have to give as
output which increase output in any organization.
 Global Market: You can overcome the challenges in global market only through
effective business communication. Developing right attitude is crucial to effective
communication in international markets.
 Decision making: Only through effective business communication one can make
decision making easy and timely for both customers and investors.
Guidelines for Effective Communication
Effective communication skills are necessary for smooth relations with other people. They can
be your family, friends, colleagues or even strangers. Communication is engaging in an exchange
with another person. Knowing how to communicate effectively will help you get across what
you mean more efficiently. You do not need a long list of do’s and don’ts for verbal use. You do
need to understand that language is not always exact. It carries possibilities for misunderstanding
if not carefully controlled. Some general guidelines for selecting words and some tips for
effective communication are noted in the following;
Be Exact: Try to find the most precise and specific words. Pay attention to feedback that
indicates how the meaning is perceived by the receiver.
 Use the word “is” carefully: When you say; “He is radical,” you may really mean, “He
seems to be a radical.” There is a vast difference between the two statements, and each might
bring a different reactions.
 Avoid Overgeneralization: Lumping groups together verbally expresses a distorted vision
of the world. Prejudice and stereotyping (assuming that an individual will think and act
according to your notion of the typical member of that sex or that ethnic, racial, or religious
group) rarely produce useful dialogue.
 Be sensitive to connotative meaning: Connotative meanings are not the definitions found in
a dictionary. Rather, they are the emotional or implied meanings we attach to certain words.
Even if your intent is to make a simple factual statement, the connotative meaning of a term
can offend someone. If your neighbour’s pet is not from a single breed, you would probably
not want to describe it as a mongrel. The connotative meaning of the term mongrel is
insulting. We reveal a great deal about our attitudes to others if we are insensitive to the
connotative meanings of words.
 Do not to overuse you or your: One sure way to produce a defensive reaction is to assign
ownership. “Your boss made another silly statement in his meeting last night” is almost
guaranteed to produce an argument rather than a discussion. Although we know that
messages can be sent in verbal form, we may not be aware of how the choice of words

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 affects the ability of the receiver to decode our message accurately. So we should keep in
mind the importance of words in message sending.
 Count from 1 to 10: When you get in the middle of an intense argument or when someone
suddenly lashes out at you, don’t get mad right away. Count 1 to 10 before responding. This
will make you aware that the person you are speaking to might just be experiencing severe
stress and does not intend to attack you personally.
 Recognize that you don’t know all the answers to all questions: If you don’t know the
answer just say that you don’t know. You don’t have to make other people feel and think that
you know everything. Listen to other people’s concerns. People need to be heard just like
you do. More importantly, take the initiative to share in other people’s feelings.
 Always remember that what others may not mean the way we think they mean it: Our
values, beliefs and judgments may have altered the meaning of what someone has said.
Always allow for the possibility that our impression of what someone has said may not be
true.
 Focus on common interests rather than differences: This will help you direct your energy
to promoting the common interest and making everyone happier, and will also help you
avoid frustration. Be aware when you impinge on someone’s space. Personal space is very
important for most people. When you impinge on their space try to ask them respectfully.
Tell them the reason you have to impinge on their space.
 Think positive: Always see the glass as half full rather than half empty. Doing so will help
you reduce stress. Also it can keep you motivated and pleasant when you deal with other
people. Communicating can be a pleasant and enriching experience when you try to do it
more effectively. These simple pointers can help you moving towards more effectively
dealing with others, and will save you a great deal of stress and energy.
Principles of Effective communications
Communication is an important part of our world today. The ability to communicate effectively
with others is considered a prized quality of the successful business people. To compose
effective written or oral messages, you must apply certain communication principles. These
principles provide guidelines for choice of content and style of presentation, adapted to the
purpose and receiver of your message. Called the “seven C’s” they are completeness,
conciseness, consideration, concreteness, clarity, courtesy and correctness. To compose effective
messages, you need to apply certain specific communications principles.
 Completeness
Your business message is complete when it contains all facts the reader or listener needs for the
reaction you desire. As you strive for completeness, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 Provide all necessary information: answering the five W’s helps make messages
clear:
 What you want and how much?

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  When you need it?
 Where it is to be sent?
 To whom it is to be sent?
 How payment will be made?
 Answer all questions asked: look for questions: some may even appear buried within
a paragraph. Locate them and answer them precisely.
 Give something extra, when desirable: use your good judgment in offering additional
material if the sender’s message was incomplete.
Your message is complete when it contains all facts the receiver needs. Incomplete messages:
 Result in additional expenses
 Spoil goodwill
 Lead to confusion and debates`
 Conciseness
Conciseness is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing the
other C qualities. A concise message is complete without being wordy. To achieve conciseness,
observe the following suggestions:
 Eliminate wordy expressions: use single word in place of phrases. For example, use
‘now’ instead of ‘at this time’.
 Include only relevant material: delete irrelevant words and rambling sentences.
 Avoid unnecessary repetition: it leads to dullness.
Please do not forget that busy business professionals prefer messages that express thoughts
in the fewest words possible. Well written business messages are only long enough to
present all the necessary information.
 Limit repetition
Repeating a word or an idea is one way to emphasize it. Use a shortened form of noun and
use a pronoun in place of a noun.
 Eliminate Excess Words
 Emphasize Verbs
Verbs are more powerful words in the English Language. Stressing verbs make writing
concise, clear and powerful.
 Use the Active Voice
The active voice tells who is doing what. The passive voice tells what was done by or to whom
or what.
Active: Isabirayit will conduct a cost-benefit analysis.
Passive: A cost-benefit analysis will be conducted by Isabirayit.
 Consideration
Consideration refers to giving thoughtful attention to the receiver/ sender. You have to prepare
every message with the receiver in mind and try to put yourself in his/her place. Try to visualize
your readers/ listeners with their desires, problems, circumstances, emotions, and probable
reactions to your messages. Three specific ways to indicate consideration are:

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 Focus on ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘We’. People are usually concerned about themselves than
about others. They are likely to read your messages when they see their names and the
pronoun ‘you’ rather than ‘I’ or ‘we’.
 Show interest in readers/ listeners or show reader benefits. Your message should show
interest in and concern for the reader’s needs or viewpoints. Whenever possible and true,
show how your receivers will benefit from whatever the message asks or announces. If so,
they will be more likely to react favorably.
 Emphasize the positive, pleasant facts. For most people negative words like no, impossible, I
cannot etc. have unpleasant emotions. By making clear what you can or will do, you (by
implication) make clear what you cannot do without using a single negative word.
 Apply integrity and Ethics- integrity refers to high moral standards as honesty, sincerity,
decent character etc. Ethics on the other hand is concerned with what is right human
conduct.
 Concreteness
Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and
general. Often it means using denotative (direct, explicit, often dictionary-based) rather than
connotative words (ideas or notions suggested by or associated with a word or phrase). The
following guidelines should help you compose concrete, convincing messages.
 Use specific facts and figures: whenever possible, use an exact, precise statement or
a figure in place of a general word to make your message more concrete.
 Put action in your verbs: active verbs help make your message more specific,
personal, concise and emphatic.
 Choose vivid, image-building words: business writing uses less figurative language
than does the world of fiction.

Concrete words convey one and only one meaning and more understandable than abstract words.
Abstract words have different meaning to different people. For example; more specific than
many and Vehicle is less specific than car or truck. To create concrete paragraphs you should be
careful about:
 Unity
Sentences and paragraphs have unity when they have one main idea and other information in the
sentence supports that main idea.
 Coherence
Unified messages are also coherent. They flow naturally and the ideas in them relate to each
other.
 Transitional Words and Phrases
Writers use transitional words and phrases as bridges to join ideas.
 Repetition: Repeating words and using pronouns in place of nouns are other ways to
achieve coherence.

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  The pen and pencil sets are packed 12 to a box. Each set comes in a case that has the
look and feel of leather.
 The pen and pencil sets are packed 12 to a box. They are available in gold, silver, or
wood-grain casings.

 Structure: Sentence structure can make a message more interesting and enhance
clarity.
 Simple: One main clause (subject and verb). Sue will take the package to Ron.
 Compound: Two main clauses. Sue will take the package to Ron, he is waiting
for it.
 Complex: One main clause a done or more sub dependent clause. Before she
sorts the mail, Sue will take the package to Ron.
 Compound-Complex: Two main clauses and at least one sub dependent clause.
Before she sorts the mail, sue will take the package to Ron, he is waiting for it.

 Clarity
Clarity means getting your message across so that the receiver will understand what you are
trying to convey. Follow the following guidelines:
 Choose short, familiar, and conversational words. Avoid Greek, Latin or other technical
words.
 Construct short sentences and paragraphs. Generally, short sentences and paragraphs
are preferred; however, a pleasing Varity of length is also desirable. The average length of
sentences suggested is 17-20 words.
 Unity: Have one or main idea in sentence, and any other points or ideas must be closely
related to it. Similarly, in paragraph, have one main idea. Usually a topic sentence is a good
way to express the main idea. The other sentences should contain details to develop the
main idea.
 Coherence: Words should be correctly arranged so that they clearly express the intended
meaning.
 Include examples, illustration, and visual aids when desirable. Some important
statements, words, or phrases may be underlined numbered, typed in capital or italics.
Slang: is the use of informal words and expressions to describe an object or condition. Slang is
also part of day-to-day speaking, but it is too casual to be used in business writing. Because slang
varies by age, gender, culture, and region, its meaning may not be clear to a larger audience.
 Jargon: is occupational terminology. The words may be new terms or common ones
used in uncommon ways. Noise, bus, culture and virus have different meanings
depending on the profession of those who use them; debit and credit are part of the
jargon of accounting.

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  Abbreviation: Is a shortened version of a word.
 Co. (Company)
 Dept. (Department)
 Mgr. (Manager)

 Acronym: is a word formed from the initial letters of major parts of a compound
term.
 CEO (Chief Executive Officer)
 CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 LIFO (Last in, first out)
 Courtesy
Courtesy is a combination of consideration and showing good manners. You can be courteous in
your business communication by being thoughtful, appreciative, and sincerely tactful.
 Avoid expressions that irritate, hurt or belittle others
 Do not ignore answering customers’ or employees’ inquires no matter how busy you are.
Sometimes silence (neglect) may be considered significantly discourtesy. Totally ignoring
inquires communicates unfavorable nonverbal messages that may lead to loss of business or
employee morale.
 Avoid blunt behavior. Blunt behavior is common cause of discourtesy.

 Correctness
The correctness principle is more than proper grammar, punctuation and spelling. A message
may be perfect grammatically mechanically but still lose a customer and fail to achieve a
purpose. Though mistakes are never intentional, they spoil our image. Errors in the messages fall
in the following categories:
 Use the right level of language. There are three levels of language –formal, informal, and sub
formal.
 The formal level of language is used for scholarly dissertation, master and doctoral thesis,
government agreements, legal documents, etc.
 The informal language refers to the language of business used for letters, memos, reports
etc.

 Check the accuracy of words, figures and facts. The following words are often confusing: a
and an, anxious, eager, between and among, counsel, and council etc.
 Maintain acceptable writing mechanisms. This refers to:
 Spelling errors
 Punctuation marks
 Capitalization
 Grammatical accuracy

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  Sentences and paragraph structures
 Format for memos, letters, reports etc.
 Choose non-discriminatory expressions
 Equal treatment of sexes
 Use humankind rather than mankind
 Use chairperson rather than chairman.

2.3 Types of Communication

It is obvious that organization need some networks for structuring who will communicate with
whom. Two kinds of networks exist: formal and informal. This section focuses on these
networks. The types of formal communication networks and the benefit they can bring to the
achievement of organizational goals are discussed in this section. The functions of informal
communication network and the forms are the topics of the last sub-sections.

 Formal Communication
Formal networks are systems designed by management to dictate who should talk to whom to get
a job done. In a small organization, networks are so simple that they may hardly be noticeable; in
a larger organization, networks become more intricate. Organizational charts-sometimes called
tables of organization- represent formal networks. Organizational charts describe who has
authority over whom. People from different departments work together daily in most
organizations, and flow charts provide a kind of road map that guides them through complicated
task. And since someone is always ultimately responsible for getting a job done well
organizational chart helps to know where that responsibility lies. The formal communication
network consists of downward, upward, and horizontal communications, which are the topics of
the subsequent sub-sections.
Downward Communication
Information circulates through formal communication network in several directions. One of
those directions involves downward communication, which takes place whenever a supervisor
sends a message to one or more subordinates.

Types of downward messages

There are several types of downward communication:
Job instructions: Directions about what to do or how to do it. “When you restock the shelves,
put the new merchandise behind the old stock.”
Job rationale: Explanations of how one task relates to another task. “We rotate the stock like
that so the customers won’t up with stale merchandise.”
Procedures and practices: Information about rules, regulations, policies, and benefits. “Don’t
try to argue with unhappy customers. If you can’t handle them yourself, call the manger.”
Feedback: Information about how effectively a person is performing. “You’re really catching on
fast. If you keep up the good work, you’ll be an assistant manager by the end of the year.”

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Indoctrination: Information aimed at motivating employees by impressing the mission of the
organization upon them and specifying how they should relate to it.

Problems with Downward Communication

Even the best organizations often don’t use downward communication as effectively as possible.
In some cases there isn’t enough information, and in others the messages that do travel down
aren’t clear or complete. These problems fall into several categories.

 Lack of awareness.
 Insufficient or unclear messages.
 Message overload.

Upward Communication
Upward communication occurs when messages flow from subordinates to superiors. Many
leading businesses attribute their success to the emphasis on upward communication in their
organization.

Types of upward messages

Upward communication can convey four types of messages.
What subordinates are doing: “We’ll have that job done by closing time today.”
Unsolved work problems: “We are still having trouble with the air conditioner in the
accounting office.”
Suggestions for improvement: “I think I’ve figured a way to give people the vacation schedules
they want and still keep our staffing up.”
How subordinates feel about each other and the job: “I’m having a hard time working with
Lemma. He seems to think I am mad at him.” Or “I’m getting frustrated. I’ve been in the same
job for over a year now, and I’m itching for more responsibility.”

Problems with Upward Communication

Three factors create problems with upward communication.
 Risk.
 Distortion.
 Status differential.

Most of the responsibilities for improving upward communication rest on managers. The place to
begin for mangers is to announce their willingness to hear from subordinates. A number of
vehicles facilitate upward messages; to name a few, an “open door” policy, grievance
procedures, periodic interviews, group meetings, and the suggestion box, to name a few.
Informal types of contact can often be most effective; chats during breaks, in the work place, or
at social gatherings can sometimes tell more than planned sessions.

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Horizontal Communication
Horizontal (sometimes called “lateral”) communication consists of messages between members
of an organization with equal power. The most obvious type of horizontal communication goes
on between members of the same division of an organization; office workers in the same
department, co-workers on a construction project, and so on. In other cases, lateral
communication occurs between people from different areas; accounting call maintenance to get a
machine repaired hospital admissions calls intensive care to reserve a bed, and so on.

Types of horizontal messages

Horizontal communication serves five purposes:
Task coordination: “Let’s get together this afternoon, and set up a production schedule.”
Problem solving: “It takes three days for my department to get reports from yours. How can we
speed things up?’
Sharing information: “I have just found out that a big convention is coming to this town next
week, so you ought to get ready for lost of business.”
Conflict resolution: “I’ve heard that you were complaining about my work to the boss. If you’re
happy, I wish you’d tell me first.”
Building rapport: “I appreciate the way you got that rush job done on time. I’d like to say
thanks by buying you lunch when it’s convenient.”

Factors inhibiting horizontal communication

Despite the importance of these five functions, several forces work to discourage communication
between peers.
 Rivalry.
 Specialization.
 Lack of motivation.
 Information overload.
 Physical barriers.
 Informal Communication
So far, we have focused on networks that are created by management. While flow-charts and
tables of organization can describe some of the ways people interact in organization, they don’t
tell the whole story. Alongside the formal networks, every organization also has informal
networks- patterns of interaction that follow neither the lines of authority described in both tables
of neither organization, nor the functions that flow charts picture.
Some observers consider informal contacts like these to be the primary means of communication
within an organization. Analysts of communication flatly assert that, as much as 90 percent of
what goes on in a company has nothing to do with formal events. There are several reasons why
informal networks are so important.

Amount of Information- Informal networks carry a tremendous amount of information. In one

study, researchers analyzed the communication of general managers over periods of six months
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to a year. They found that the managers spent a great deal of time with people who were not
direct subordinates, superiors, or peers- people with whom, according to the official chain of
command, they had no need to deal. Many of these people seemed relatively unimportant to
outsiders: secretaries, lower-level subordinates, and supervisors with little power. Despite their
unrelated job descriptions and low official status, successful managers all seemed to cultivate
these contacts. Speed- Since they are not forced to follow official channels, these informal
sources often provide information much faster than official methods. While a memo announcing
a new policy is being typed and duplicated, a series of telephone calls from one person to another
can spread the news throughout an organization.

Accuracy- Informal contacts often provide more accurate information than official channels.
Research has demonstrated that informal networks are consistently accurate-between 80 and 90
percent according to many studies. Informal messages are relatively accurate because their face-
to–face nature allows more clarification than the written, one-way, serially transmitted messages
that come via formal channels. However, as the emotional impact of a message grows, the
chances of its being distorted increase.

Informal networks develop for several reasons. Some are based on physical proximity. Despite
their distance on an organizational chart, some people communicate simply because they spend
time close to one another. The office workers who overheard the layoff information fall into this
category. Other networks form around the shared career interests of their members, as in the case
of the management trainees who use computer. Finally, some networks are based on personal
friendships. Sometimes these friendships would exist even if there were no working relationship
between the members. In other cases, the friendship is more of a means to an end for one or both
of the parties.

 Functions of informal communication

Not all informal messages are idle rumors. As the following examples show, informal
communication can serve several useful functions.
Confirming- Some informal communication confirms formal messages. You have probably
heard this sort of confirmation yourself: “The boss is really serious about cutting down on long–
distance calls this time. I heard him yelling about it when I walked past his office.”

Expanding- Informal communication can fill in the gaps left by incomplete formal messages.
You might say to an experienced co–worker: “The invitation to the office says ‘casual dress.’
What does that mean-jeans and T-shirt or sport coat and tie?”
Expediting- Informal networks can often deliver messages more quickly than official channels.
Contradicting- Sometimes informal networks contradict official messages. You might learn
from a friend in accounting department that the deadline for purchases on the budget of this year
isn’t as firm as it sounded in the controller’s recent memo.

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Circumventing- Informal contacts can sometimes help you bypass official channels that are
unnecessarily cumbersome and time-consuming.
Supplementing- Sometimes even a management realizes that informal communication can get
the job done better than the more formal variety. Paradoxical as it seems, many companies
elevate informal communication to an official policy by encouraging open, unstructured contacts
between people from various parts of the organization.

Enlightened organizations do everything possible to encourage constructive, informal

interaction. Some firms mingle workers from different departments in` the same office,
convinced that people who rub elbows will swap ideas and see themselves as part of a company-
wide team. A review of the six functions in this section shows that informal communication can
operate in two ways. In poorly run companies, it is a kind of survival mechanism used by
employees to get around unproductive policies and practices. In well-managed organizations
informal networks are simply another tool that management uses to make life more pleasant and
efficient. Whichever type of setting you work in, the lesson is clear: it’s vitally important to
encourage and use informal networks as supplement to official channels.

Cultivating Informal
Developing a strong informal communication network is not all coincidence. Several steps can
help you to develop these important links. Seek exposure to people at all levels of the
organization. Sometimes the best informants are people with low official status. A telephone
operator or receptionist, for example, may have a better idea of who talks with whom than
anyone else in the organization. Secretaries are exposed to most of the information addressed to
their bosses, and they usually serve as gatekeepers who can give or deny access to them.
Custodial and maintenance people travel around the building and, in their rounds, see and hear
many interesting things. Besides, a friendly repairperson can fix a broken widget now instead of
insisting that you file a work order that probably won’t get attention for six weeks.

Treat everyone in the organization with respect. As you will soon read, perhaps the most
important factor in the morale of an organization is the degree to which its members feel valued.
Besides the fact that thoughtfulness and courtesy are simple good manners, they can make the
difference between your developing a network of friends or a network of enemies. Remember
colleagues on holidays. Ask about children. Discuss hobbies. And, above all, be polite and
pleasant.

2.4 Barriers to Communication

There are various problems that hinder the message does not reach the receiver such as, the
problems of encoding and decoding, faulty selection of channel, wrong language or the
interpretation of the message. These problems are called ‘noise’ in communication. Throughout
the communication process, the message is subject to extraneous factors that can distort or

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interfere with its reception. This unplanned distortion or interference is known as noise. Errors or
problems that occur in the encoding of the message, distortion in a radio or television signal, or
distractions at the point of reception are examples of noise.

When you are watching your favorite commercial on TV and a problem occurs in the signal
transmission, it will obviously interfere with your reception, lessening the impact of the
commercial. Noise may also occur because the fields of experience of the sender and receiver do
not overlap. Lack of common ground may result in improper encoding of the message— using a
sign, symbol, or words that are unfamiliar or have different meaning to the receiver. The more
common ground there is between the sender and the receiver, the less likely it is this type of
noise will occur.
Barriers in relation to the sender’s idea
The world constantly bombards us with information: Sights, sounds, scents and so on. Our minds
filter Stream of sensation and organize it into a mental map that represents our perception of
reality. In no case is the maps in a person’s mind the same as the world itself, and no two maps
are exactly alike. As you view the world, your mind absorbs your experiences in a unique and
personal way. For example, if you and a friend go out for lunch, each of you will mentally grasp
different things.

Because your perceptions are unique, the ideas that you want to express differ from other people.
Even when two people have experienced the same event, their mental images of that event will
not be identical. As a communicator, you filter out the details that seem unimportant and focus
your attention on the most relevant and general, a process known as abstracting.

You also make assumptions and draw conclusions, even though you cannot directly verify those
assumptions. You assume, for example, that the music you hear in the restaurant comes from the
jukebox in the back room, although you cannot see it as you enter. Often your inferences are
correct, but sometimes they are not. When you send a message, you inevitably distort reality.
The idea in your mind is a simplification of the real world. In the process of conceiving an idea,
you leave out many things and assume many others.

Barriers in transforming idea to message

In a process not completely understood, the idea in your mind is transformed into words; you
decide such issues as length, organization, tone, and style of the message. You can express an
idea in an almost infinite number of ways, but something makes you choose one approach over
another For example, you may decide to say, “The man was driving a car,” rather than, “The old
geezer was poking along in a beat-up green old Ford.” Your choice of words depends on your
subject, your purpose, your audience, and your personal style or mood.

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To some extent, your choice of words also depends on your cultural background. If you are a
bureaucrat manager, you might say, “Expedited adjustment assistance may be ineffective in
helping the industry cope with current problems of severe inventory overhang, low prices, and
financial losses.” That sort of language is considered appropriate in some bureaucracies. On the
other hand, if you’re a straightforward manager, you might say, “Even a swift government
bailout won’t save us from going broke.” When you choose your words, you signal that you are
member of a particular association and that you know the code. The nature of your code-your
language and vocabulary-imposes its own limits on your message. For example, the language of
a lawyer differs from that of an accountant or a doctor, and the difference in their vocabularies
affects their ability to recognize and express ideas. Several things can go wrong when you’re
formulating a message. Typical problems involve indecision about message content, lack of
familiarity with the situation or the receiver, emotional conflicts, or difficulty in expressing
ideas.

Indecision about Content

Deciding what to say is the first hurdle in the communication process. Many people make the
mistake of trying to convey everything they know about a subject. When a message contains too
much information, it is difficult to absorb. If you want to get your point across; therefore, you
have to decide what to include and what to leave out, how much detail to provide, and what order
to follow. If you try to explain something without first giving the receiver adequate background,
you will create confusion. And if you recommend actions without first explaining why they are
justified, your message may provoke an emotional response that inhibits understanding.

Lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver

Creating an effective message is difficult if you don’t know how it will be used. Let’s say you’re
writing a report on the market for sports equipment. If you don’t know the purpose of the report,
it’s hard to know what to say. What sort of sports equipment should you cover? Should you
include team sports as well as individual sports? Should you subdivide the market geographically
or according to price ranges? How long should the report be? Should it provide conclusions and
recommendations or simply facts and figures? Unless you know why the report is needed, you
really can’t answer these questions intelligently. You are forced to create a very general
document, one that covers a little bit of everything.

Lack of familiarity with your audience is an equally serious handicap. You need to know
something about the biases, education, age, status, and style of the receiver in order to create an
effective message. If you’re writing for a specialist in your field, for example, you can use
technical terms that might be unfamiliar to a layperson. If you’re addressing a lower-level
employee, you might approach a subject differently than if you were talking to your boss.
Decisions about the content, organization, style, and tone of your message, all depend, at least to
some extent, on the relationship between you and the audience. If you don’t know the audience,

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you will be forced to make these decisions in the dark. As a consequence, at least part of your
message may miss the mark.

Emotional Conflicts
Another potential problem in developing the message arises when the sender has conflicting
emotions about the subject or the audience. Let’s say you’ve been asked to recommend ways to
improve the organization of your department. You conclude that the best approach is to combine
two positions. But this solution will mean eliminating the job of one of your close associates. As
you prepare your report, you find yourself apologizing for your recommendation. Even though
you believe your position is justified, you cannot make a convincing case.

Difficulty of Expressing Ideas

Lack of experience in writing or speaking can also prevent a person from developing effective
messages. Some people have limited education or a lack of aptitude when it comes to expressing
ideas. Perhaps they have a limited vocabulary or are uncertain about questions of grammar,
punctuation, and style. Or perhaps they are simply frightened by the idea of writing something or
appearing before a group. In any case, they are unable to develop an effective message because
they lack expertise in using language.

Problems of this sort can be overcome, but only with some effort. The important thing is to
recognize the problem and take action. Taking courses in communication is a good first step.
Many companies offer their own in-house training programs in communication; others have
tuition reimbursement programs to help cover the cost of outside courses. Self-help books are
other good, inexpensive alternatives.

Barriers while the Message is transmitted

The Third step in the communication process is physical transmission of the message from
sender to receiver. The channel may be nonverbal or verbal, written or spoken. Beyond that, you
can convey a message by phone, computer, letter, memo, report, face-to-face exchange, or other
medium.

The transmission channel and the medium you choose depend on the message you want to
convey and on other factors, such as the location of your audience, the need for speed, and the
formality of the situation. Feedback was a major consideration when the Detroit Diesel
Corporation, which manufactures truck engines, invited its distributors to visit its new warehouse
in Canton, Ohio, and to suggest ways to improve service. By seeing the facility and talking face-
to-face with Detroit Diesel’s employees, the distributors were able to offer 240 suggestions. The
result: Detroit Diesel cut its delivery time for engine parts from five days to three. What’s more,
its market share has doubled in five years, a direct result of the personal contact with the
distributors.

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When problems arise during the transmission phase of the communication process, they re often
physical: bad connections, poor acoustics, and illegible copy. Although defects of this sort
(called “noise”) seem trivial, they can completely block an otherwise effective message. For this
reason, you should exercise as much control as possible over the physical transmission link. If
you’re preparing a written document, make sure that its appearance doesn’t detract from your
message. If you’re delivering an oral presentation, choose a setting that permits the audience to
see and hear you without straining.

A more subtle transmission problem arises when two messages compete for attention. For
example, if the receiver is talking on the phone while scanning a report, message has two
possible meanings. Let’s say your boss compliments you on completing an assignment on time,
but you sense a hint of sarcasm in her voice, the nonverbal message contradicts the verbal one.

Aside from conflicting signal, perhaps the most troublesome transmission problem arises when
the communication chain has too many links. Because everyone’s mental map is different, some
distortion is likely when messages are transferred from person to person. The original message is
interpreted and retold differently by each person. By the time the message reaches the end of the
line, it may have only a vague resemblance to the original version. The longer the chain, the
bigger the problem.

Barriers while the Receiver Gets the Message

For communication to occur, the receiver has to get the message. If you send a letter, the
recipient has to read it before she or he can understand it. If you’re giving a speech, the people in
the audience have to be able to hear you, and they have to be paying attention.

But physical reception is only the first step. The receiver also has to absorb the message
mentally. In other words, the message has to be understood and stored in the receiver’s mind. If
all goes well, the message is interpreted correctly: The receiver assigns the same basic meaning
to the words as the sender intends and responds in the desired way.

Like transmission problems, problems during the reception phase often have a physical cause.
The receiver may be distracted by competing sights and sounds, an uncomfortable chair, poor
lighting, or some other irritating condition. In some cases, the barrier may be related to the
receiver’s health. Hearing or visual impairment, for example, or even a headache, can interfere
with reception of messages. These annoyances don’t generally block communication entirely,
but they may reduce the receiver’s concentration.
Perhaps the most common barrier to reception is simply lack of attention on the receiver’s part.
We all let our minds wander now and then, regardless of how hard we try to concentrate. People
are, especially likely to drift off when they are forced to listen to information that is difficult to
understand, or that has little direct bearing on their own lives. If they are tired or concerned about
other matters, they are even more likely to lose interest.

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Barriers while the receiver reacts and gives feedback to the sender
Feedback is the final link in the communication chain. After getting the message, the receiver
responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. The signal may take the form of a
smile, a long pause, a spoken comment, a written message or an action. Even a lack of response
is, in a sense, a form of response.

Feedback is a key element in the communication process because it enables the sender to
evaluate the effectiveness of the message. If your audience doesn’t understand what you mean,
you can tell by the response and refine the message. Feedback plays an important role by
indicating significant communication barriers: differences in background, different
interpretations of words, and differing emotional reactions.

Different backgrounds
Differences in background can be one of the hardest communication barriers to overcome. When
the receiver’s life experience differs substantially from the sender’s, communication becomes
more difficult. If you’ve ever tried to explain something to someone distinctly different from
yourself, you know the problem. Age, education, gender, social status, economic position,
cultural background, temperament, health, beauty, popularity, religion, political belief, even a
passing mood can all separate one person from another and make understanding difficult.
Communicating with someone from another country is probably the most extreme example of
how background may impede communication. But you don’t have to seek out a person from an
exotic locale to run into cultural gaps. You can misunderstand even your best friends and closest
relatives, as you, no doubt, know from personal experience.

Even achieving that limited goal is more difficult than it sounds. Our ability to absorb
information depends on our past experiences. Over time, each of us builds up a view of the
world. When we learn something new, we try to fit it into our existing pattern. If it doesn’t quite
fit, we are inclined to distort the information rather than rearrange the pattern. When we
communicate with people who share similar experience and expectations, much of what we say
automatically fits into their mental framework. But when we encounter people with different
backgrounds, we often communicate from distinct viewpoints.
Different interpretations of words
Another communication barrier results from differing interpretations of words. Part of the
problem in understanding messages is built into language, which uses words as symbols to
represent reality. Nothing in the word cookie automatically ties it to the physical thing that is a
cookie. We might just as well call a cookie, a zebra. Language is an arbitrary code that depends
on shared definitions. But there is a limit to how completely any of us can share the same
meaning for a given word. Obviously, the fuzziness of words is not an insurmountable problem.
People manage to communicate with one another all the time, despite the limitations of language.
But it’s useful to remember that words, by themselves, don’t mean anything. Their meanings

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depend on the ideas they evoke in people’s minds, and no two minds are identical. Try to
overcome differences in the interpretation of words by using the most specific and accurate
language possible.

Different emotional reactions

Finally, different emotional reactions can be serious barriers to communication. Interestingly
enough, one person may react differently to the same words on various occasions. A message
that might be perfectly clear and acceptable in one situation can lead to confusion and hostility in
another, depending on the emotional relationship between receiver and sender.

Every message contains both a content meaning, which deals with the subject of the message,
and a relationship meaning, which suggests the nature of the interaction between sender and
receiver. Communication can break down when the receiver reacts negatively to either of these
meanings. When the boss says, “Get that monthly report on my desk by five o’clock tonight,” the
employee may become angry on two counts: Finishing the report on time may be difficult, and
the boss has the power to make unreasonable demands. Although the employee may understand
the message perfectly, communication suffers because the message creates hostility.

As you know from your own experience, discussing something with another person is difficult
when either of you is upset. An upset person tends to ignore or distort what the other person is
saying and is often unable to present his or her own feelings and ideas effectively. This is not to
say that you should avoid all communication for misunderstanding that accompanies aroused
emotions.
Complexity of the message
Although all communication is subject to misunderstandings, business communication is
particularly difficult. The material is often complex and controversial, yet both the sender and the
receiver may face distractions that divert their attention. Furthermore, the opportunities for
feedback are often limited, making it difficult to correct misunderstandings. Business messages
are often hard to formulate. For one thing, you must communicate both as an individual and as a
representative of an organization. Thus, you must adjust your own ideas and style so that they are
acceptable to your bosses. In fact, you may be asked, occasionally, to write or say something to
someone that you disagree with personally. Let’s suppose that you work in the personnel
department as a recruiter for your firm. You have interviewed a person who you believe could
make an excellent employee, but others in the firm have rejected this person’s application. Now
you are in the position of having to write a letter, telling the candidate, in effect, “Sorry, we don’t
want you”. That’s tough assignment. Even when you agree with the message, you may have
emotional reservations about expressing it.
You may know that you are doing the right thing, which you have no choice but to fire this or
that person or to cancel this or that program, but you also would rather avoid causing hardship or
disappointment. Organization is full of difficult decisions like these, decisions that affect
people’s lives. On top of everything else, you may not know as much as you need to know about
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the purpose or audience of your message. Furthermore, you may have two days to do a job that
should take ten. You may be interrupted in the middle of your work. You may have to
collaborate with people whose ideas don’t mesh with yours. You may be told to produce a
document that looks professional but, at the same time, not to waste a lot of time and money.
And you may have to revise your message over and over to please everybody in the chain of
command.

Difficult conditions for transmission and reception

Assuming that you succeed in preparing the message, you still have to get through to your
audience. In many business organizations, the filters between you and the receiver are many;
secretaries, assistants, and receptionists. Just getting through by telephone can take a week if
you’re calling someone who’s protected by layers of gatekeepers. Worse yet, your message may
be digested and distilled, and probably distorted, before it is passed on to the intended receiver.
Those same gatekeepers may also translate, embellish, and augment the receiver’s ideas before
passing them on to you. When the message finally does reach the receiver, he or she may be
unable to digest it in peace. You may have to compete with a variety of interruptions: The phone
rings every five minutes, people intrude, meetings are called, and crises arise. In short, you rarely
have the benefit of the receiver’s undivided attention. Your message may be picked up and put
down several times.
Differences between sender and receiver
Your biggest problem is the gulf between you and your receiver. In your work, you often
communicate with an unknown and unseen audience. And even when you know the other party,
you may be separated by differences in function, status, age, or allegiance. These differences
make communication very difficult indeed.
GUIDELINES TO OVERCOME COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Now having the knowledge of the barriers to effective communication, can you think of
alternative ways of avoiding them? The following are ways which are suggested so as to make
your communication in the work place as smooth and effective as possible.
There are six factors or themes that contribute to effective communication.
1. Fostering an open communication climate.
2. Committing to ethical communication
3. Understanding the difficulties involved in intercultural communication.
4. Adopting an audience-centered approach to communication.
5. Using technology wisely and responsibly to obtain and share information.
6. Creating and processing messages effectively and efficiently.
Now let us discuss them one by one.
1. Fostering an open communication climate.
An organization’s communication climate is a reflection of its corporate culture: the mixture
of values, traditions and habits. It affects the quantity and quality of the information that
passes through the pipeline. The following are the measures that can be taken to create an
open communication climate:
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 a) Modify the number of organizational levels.
One way to foster an open communication climate is to reduce the number of
levels in the organizations structure. The fewer the links in the communication
chain, the less likely the misunderstandings will occur. In other words, a flat
structure (having fewer levels) and a wide span of control are likely to
introduce distortion than a tall structure and a narrow span of control.
b) Facilitate feedback
Giving the audience a chance to provide feedback is crucial to maintaining an
open communication climate.
2. Committing to ethical communication
Ethics are the principles of conduct that govern a person or a group. Ethical people are
generally trustworthy, fair and impartial, respecting the rights of others, and concerned about
the impact of their actions on society. Ethics plays a crucial role in communication. Ethical
communication includes all relevant information, is true in every sense and is not deceptive in
any way. In order to maintain ethical communication follow the guidelines below:
a) Recognize ethical choices.
Every company has responsibilities to various groups- customers,
shareholders, suppliers, neighbours, the community and the nation. What’s
right for one group may be wrong for another. Moreover as we attempt to
satisfy the needs of one group, we may be presented with an option that seems
right on the surface but somehow feels wrong.
b) Make ethical choices.
Laws provide ethical guidelines for certain types of messages. Look at the
consequences of the decision and opt for the solution that provides the greatest
good to the greatest number of people, and one that we can live with.

c) Motivate ethical choices.

Organizations can foster ethical behaviour:
 by helping top managers become more sensitive communicators
 by using ethics audits
 by rewarding ethical actions
3. Understanding the difficulties involved in intercultural communication
More and more businesses are crossing national boundaries to compete on a global scale and
the makeup of the global and domestic work force is changing rapidly. Global companies
must understand the laws, customs and business practices of many countries, and they must
deal with business associates and employees.
4. Adopting an audience-centered approach to communication
Using an audience-centered approach means keeping the audience in mind all times when
communicating. Since audience is taken care of, every possible step is taken to get the
message across in a way that is meaningful to the audience. Empathizing with and being
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sensitive to the audience’s feelings is the best way to overcome such communication barriers
as differences in perception and emotional interference.
5. Using technology wisely and responsibly to obtain and share information
In today’s world, information moves through an array of media at the speed of a neural
impulse. Technology has such an impact on business communication. When used wisely and
responsibly, technology helps to improve the effectiveness of business communication.
6. Creating and processing messages effectively and efficiently.
The sixth guideline is to plan messages, generate ideas, organize the thoughts, and turn the
words into effective business messages. In order to create messages effectively and
efficiently, consider the following issues:
a) Learn about the audience
Creating an effective message is difficult if the audience is unfamiliar, or if we
don’t know how the message will be used. We need to know something about
the biases, education, age, status and style of the receiver in order to create an
effective message.
b) Adapt the message to the audience
Decisions about the content, organization, style, and tone of the message
depend on the relationship between the sender and the audience.
c) Develop and connect ideas
Include only the information that is useful to the audience, and organize it in
such a way that encourages its acceptance. To make message memorable;
 Use telling statistics.
 Use words that evoke a physical, sensory impression.
 Tie the message to the audience’s frame of reference.
 Keep messages as brief and as clean as possible.
 Highlighting and summarizing key points.
d) Reduce the number of messages
Organizations save time and money by sending only necessary messages. If a
written message merely adds to the information overload, it is probably better
left unsent or handled some other way – by a quick telephone call or a face to
face chat. By holding down the number of messages, organizations will
maximize the benefits of their communication activities.

e) Choose the correct channel and medium

The careful choice of channel and medium helps focus the audience’s attention
on message. The choice of a communication channel and medium depends on
the:
 Message
 Audience
 Need for speed
 Situation.
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 f) Strengthen the communication skills
Recognizing the importance of efficient communication, many companies
today train employees in communication skills. Companies offer seminars and
workshops on handling common oral communication situations (such as
dealing with customers, managing subordinates, and getting along with co-
workers), as well as training in computers and other electronic means of
communication.

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