Module 2

Eddy Current Testing

 Introduction
• The basic principle underlying the electrical test methods is that electrical eddy
currents and /or magnetic effects are induced within the material.

• From an assessment of the effects, deductions can be made about the nature and
condition of the test-piece.

• These techniques are highly versatile and, with the appropriate equipment and test
method, can be used to detect surface and sub-surface defects within components.

• Determine the thickness of surface coatings.

• Provide information about structural features, such as crystal grain size and heat
treatment condition.

• Measure physical properties including electrical conductivity, magnetic

permeability and physical hardness.
 Introduction contd…
• In the case of ferro-magnetic materials there is a continuous spectrum of effects.

• Predominantly magnetic effects at low frequencies to eddy current effects at the

higher frequencies, where the magnetic effect is suppressed.

• At the higher-frequency end, the techniques used relate to assessment of the

distortion and reduction of the eddy current fields induced within the material.

• Changes in eddy current fields will indicate those defects which affect the flow of
eddy currents in the surface layers of the material, such as cracks.
 Introduction contd…
• At low frequencies it is the magnetic effects which predominate and the effect that
the material has on the B-H loop is observed.

• This relates to structural properties such as hardness.

• With non-magnetic materials, only eddy current effects occur, irrespective of the
frequency.

• In general, inspection techniques for non-magnetic materials use the higher

frequencies, that is greater than 1 kHz.
 Electromagnetic Induction
• Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction.

• When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a

magnetic field develops in and around the conductor.

• This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and
collapses as the current is reduced to zero.
 Electromagnetic Induction
• Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction.

• When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a

magnetic field develops in and around the conductor.

• This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and
collapses as the current is reduced to zero.

• If another electrical conductor is brought into the proximity of this changing

magnetic field, the reverse effect will occur.

• Magnetic field cutting through the second conductor will cause an “induced”
current to flow in this second conductor.

• Eddy currents are a form of induced currents!

 Eddy Current Generation
• Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a circular path.

• They get their name from “eddies” that are formed when a liquid or gas flows
in a circular path around obstacles when conditions are right.

Test Probe

Eddy Currents
 Eddy Current Generation contd…
• In order to generate eddy currents for an inspection a “probe” is used. Inside the probe is
a length of electrical conductor which is formed into a coil.

• Alternating current is allowed to flow in the coil at a frequency chosen by the technician
for the type of test involved.

• A dynamic expanding and collapsing magnetic field forms in and around the coil as the
alternating current flows through the coil.
 Eddy Current Generation contd…
• When an electrically conductive material is placed in the coil’s dynamic magnetic
field electromagnetic, induction will occur and eddy currents will be induced in the
material.

• Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate their own “secondary” magnetic
field which will oppose the coil’s “primary” magnetic field.
 Eddy Current Generation contd…
• This entire electromagnetic induction process to produce eddy currents may occur
from several hundred to several million times each second depending upon
inspection frequency.
 Eddy Current Generation contd…
• Eddy currents are strongest at the surface of the material and decrease in strength
below the surface.

• The depth that the eddy currents are only 37% as strong as they are on the surface is
known as the standard depth of penetration or skin depth.

• This depth changes with probe frequency, material conductivity and permeability.
 Principle of Eddy Current Testing
• If a coil carrying an alternating current is placed in proximity to a conductive
material, secondary or eddy currents will be induced within the material.

• The induced currents will produce a magnetic field which will be in opposition to
the primary magnetic field surrounding the coil.

• This interaction between fields causes a back e.m.f in the coil and, hence, a change
in the coil impedance value.
 Principle of Eddy Current Testing
• If a material is uniform in composition and dimensions, the impedance value of a
search coil placed close to the surface should be the same at all points on the
surface, apart from some variation observed close to the edges of the sample.

• If the material contains a discontinuity, the distribution of eddy currents – and their
magnitude - will be altered in its vicinity and there will be a consequent reduction
in the magnetic field associated with the eddy currents, so the coil impedance value
will be altered.

• The timing or phase of the currents will depend on a number of factors.

• These factors include the magnitude of the magnetic field surrounding the primary
coil, the electrical and magnetic properties of the material, and the presence or
otherwise of discontinuities or dimensional changes within the material.
 Principle of Eddy Current Testing
• Several types of search coil are used, two common types being the flat or pancake
type coil which is suitable for the examination of flat surfaces, and the solenoid
type coil which can be used in conjunction with solid or tubular cylindrical parts.

• For tubes, a solenoid type coil may be placed around the tube or inserted into the
bore.

Solenoid-type coil around bar, producing

circumferential eddy currents.
Pancake-type coil, producing circular eddy
currents within flat plate.
 Principle of Eddy Current Testing
• If a component contains a crack or other discontinuity, the flow pattern of eddy
currents will be altered and this will cause change in the magnetic field and, hence,
a change in coil impedance.

Cross-section of a bar within solenoid-type coil, showing eddy current pattern

Defect-free section - uniform Eddy current pattern

eddy currents. distorted by the presence
of a defect
• The impedance of a coil can be determined by measuring the voltage across it.
• In eddy current test equipment, changes in coil impedance can be indicated on a meter or a chart recorder or
displayed on the screen of a cathode ray tube.
 Conductivity of a material
• The conductivity of a material is one of the major variables in eddy current testing.

• Each material has its own individual conductivity value.

• The electrical conductivity of a metal or alloy is affected by many factors.

• In many cases quite minor variations in chemical composition will alter the
conductivity value.

• One effect of cold working on a metal is to decrease the electrical conductivity, and
heat treatments will bring about changes.

• Any factor which will increase the physical hardness of a metal will cause a
reduction in its electrical conductivity.

• Conductivity is, of course, the inverse of resistivity.

 Conductivity of a material
• The resistivity of a material is a value with the units ohm-metre or micro-ohm-
metre.

• Conductivity, therefore, has the units (ohm-metre)-1 .

• Also expressed as percentage of the conductivity of pure copper .

• International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS).

• Conductivity of IACS copper is 58.0 (ohm-metre)-1 and this value is taken as 100
per cent on the IACS scale.
 Conductivity of a material
Variation of electrical conductivity with composition and condition for some
copper materials and other metals
 Magnetic properties of a material
• A magnetic field, H, will produce a magnetic flux density, B.

• In a vacuum the magnetic flux density which is produced is related to the

magnetising field strength as follows:

µ0 is a constant and is termed the magnetic permeability of a vacuum.

• The value of µ0 is 4π × 10-7 henry per metre.

 Magnetic properties of a material
• The magnetic flux density induced in a material for any given magnetising field
strength may differ from that induced in a vacuum and the relationship can be
written:

• where µr is termed the relative magnetic permeability.

• For a vacuum, therefore, it is 1.0.

• The relative magnetic permeabilities of most materials differ only very slightly
from 1.0.

• However, ferro-magnetic materials possess very high values of relative magnetic

permeability and the values may range from 100 to 1000000.
 Magnetic properties of a material
• In a similar manner to electrical properties, the magnetic permeability of a
material is also affected by variations in:
• composition,
• hardness and
• microstructural condition.

• Small variations in permeability will have a greater effect on eddy current than
small changes in electrical conductivity.
 Coil Impedance
• When an alternating current flows through a coil there will be two factors
opposing the flow of current, namely the ohmic resistance, R, of the coil and the
inductive reactance, XL.

• The inductive reactance XL is given by XL = ωL

where L is the inductance of the coil and ω = 2πf, f being the frequency of the
alternating current.

• The total resistance of the coil is termed the impedance, Z, and is given by

Can be represented by the hypotenuse of a

right-angled triangle
 Coil Impedance
• The changes in impedance value of a coil can be represented on an impedance
plane diagram.

• The impedance of a coil can be represented on a graph with reactance, ωL, and
resistance, R, as the two axes.

• A coil in air, with a reactance of ωLo and

resistance Ro, Can be represented by point Zo on
the diagram.

• When the coil is brought into close proximity to

a conducting material the values Lo and Ro will
be changed to ωL1 and R1 , and so the
impedance value will change from Zo to Z1.
Coil Impedance

• The magnitude and direction of this change will

be dependent on a number of factors.

• These factors are those related to the nature of

the testpiece, namely its dimensions,
conductivity, magnetic permeability and the
presence of any defects, and those factors
associated with the test coil, namely the size
and shape of the coil, its distance from the
testpiece and the frequency of the alternating
source.
 Coil Impedance
• There is a lower limit to the frequency which can be used for any particular
inspection application and this is referred to as the limit frequency, fg.

• The limit frequency is not of constant value for all conditions and is dependent on
the material parameters of conductivity and magnetic permeability and on the size
of the component.

• Forster and colleagues developed a mathematical analysis of the behaviour of

impedance in specimens of known geometrical shape.

• In the case of a cylindrical testpiece within a solenoid type coil, the following
empirical relationship for limit frequency was derived:

• where ρ is the conductivity of the material µr is the relative magnetic permeability

and d is the diameter of the testpiece in mm.
 Lift off factor
• When an inspection coil is energised in air a recording instrument always gives an
indication, even in the absence of a specimen.

• As the coil is moved closer to a conductor (component) the indication will

change, and the magnitude of the change will increase until the coil is directly on
the conductor.

• The changes in spacing between coil and conductor are termed lift-off.

• The lift-off effect is so pronounced that small variations in spacing can mask
many indications resulting from conditions of primary interest.

• The lift-off effect accounts for the extreme difficulty experienced in scanning
components of complex shape.
Lift off and conductivity curves
Impedance plane diagram when there is a flaw
 Edge effects
• At component edges, eddy current flow is distorted, because the eddy currents are
unable to flow beyond this limiting barrier.

• The magnitude of this edge effect is usually very large, and hence, inspection is
inadvisable close to edges.

• In general, it is recommended that inspection be limited to an approach of 3 mm

to a component edge.
 Skin effects
• Eddy currents are not distributed uniformly throughout apart under inspection.

• They are most dense at the component surface, immediately beneath a coil, and
become progressively less dense with increasing distance from the surface.

• At some distance below the surface of large components, eddy current flow is
negligible.

• This phenomena is commonly termed 'skin effect'.

 Skin effects
• The eddy current density decreases exponentially with distance from the
specimen surface.

• The depth below the surface at which the magnitude of the eddy current is
reduced to l/e of the value of surface current (approximately 37 per cent) is
termed the standard penetration depth, S.

• This depth can be estimated using the relationship:

 Skin effects
• The standard penetration depth for so me materials, as a function of frequency, is
shown in figure.

• It will be seen that the standard penetration depth is not a constant for any
particular material but it decreases as the test frequency increases.
 Skin effects
• When the thickness of a testpiece is less than approximately three times the
standard penetration depth, the distribution pattern of the eddy currents will
become distorted and the extent of such distortion will vary with the thickness of
the material.

• It follows then, that for materials of thin section a change in thickness will alter the
impedance value of a test coil.

• An eddy current system therefore, when calibrated against known standards, can be
successfully used for the accurate measurement of the thickness of thin materials.
 Test frequency
• The inspection frequencies used in electrical techniques range from 20 Hz to 10
MHz.

• Inspection of non-magnetic materials is performed at frequencies within the range

1 kHz-5 MHz.

• Frequencies lower than 1 kHz are often employed with magnetic materials.

• The actual frequency used in any specific test is normally a compromise in order
to attain optimum sensitivity at the desired penetration depth.

• It is worth noting that similar indications will be obtained from similar defects
in a wide range of materials.

• Provided that the inspection frequencies are adjusted so that the ratio of
inspection frequency to the limit frequency, f/fg , has a constant value.
 Test frequency
• For non-magnetic materials the choice becomes relatively simple when it is
required to detect surface flaws only.

• Frequencies as high as possible (several MHz) are used.

• However, detection of sub-surface flaws at a considerable depth demand low

frequencies, sacrificing sensitivity.

• Hence, small flaws may not be detected under such conditions.

• Inspection of ferro-magnetic materials demands very low frequencies because

of the relatively low penetration depth in these materials.

• Higher frequencies can be used to inspect for surface conditions only.

• However, even the higher frequencies used in these applications are still
considerably lower than those used to inspect non-magnetic materials for similar
conditions.
 Coil Arrangements
• A single primary solenoid type coil may be used for the routine inspection of
cylindrical bars or tubes.

• The testpiece is passed through the coil.

• Variations in coil impedance value as the testpiece moves through the coil will
indicate the presence of flaws.

Single primary coil around bar

 Coil Arrangements
• When it is not possible to place a coil around the outside of a tube.

• Routine in situ inspection of heat exchanger or condenser tubes, the coil can be
wound on a bobbin and inserted into the bore of the tubes.

• Frequently a double primary coil system is used in tube inspection.

• The two coils are identical and are connected to adjacent arms of a bridge
network.

• When the tube is unform the bridge circuit will be balanced but if one coil is in
proximity to a crack, or an area where corrosion has caused a thinning of the
tube wall, the bridge will be thrown out of balance.

Twin-coil bobbin inside tube

 Coil Arrangements
• The differential coil system is sometimes used instead of the double primary
coil for tube and bar inspection.

• When the material is uniform there will be zero voltage across AB but if a flaw
existed at some point X in the specimen, a voltage would exist between AB.

Differential coil system

 Coil Arrangements
• One of the most widely used
arrangements is the surface coil
in which a coil is wound around
a ferrite core.

• The coil is held normal to the

surface of the material being
inspected.

• The ferrite core will concentrate

the magnetic flux and increase Surface coil with ferrite core
the sensitivity for the detection
of small defects
 Inspection probes
• For many test and inspection purposes, a coil or coils are mounted in a holder
as an inspection probe.

• A coil is frequently wound around a ferrite core.

• The search coil is generally protected by a plastic casing.

• The end of the ferrite core often projects beyond the plastic case.

• Eddy current test probes do not need any coupling fluid between them and the
testpiece.

• Unlike ultrasonic probes, because they are coupled to the material by a

magnetic field.

• Consequently little if any surface preparation is necessary prior to inspection.

 Inspection probes
• The single coil probe is ideal for the
detection of surface defects such as
small cracks.

• The probe should be held normal to

the component surface otherwise
incorrect indications could occur.

• The probe may be held in a jig to

ensure that it is always normal to the
testpiece surface.

• The signal from this type of single

coil probe would be connected to test
equipment with a resonant circuit.
 Inspection probes

• The twin coil probe type is suitable

for the measurement of the thickness
of surface coatings or for
conductivity measurements.

• The signals from twin coil probes are

best analysed using a test set with a
bridge circuit.
 Inspection probes

• Bore or hole probes possess single or

twin coils and are designed to be
inserted into tubes or holes, such as
bolt-holes in plate.

• For the inspection of cylindrical bolt

or rivet holes in sheet or plate
material, a different arrangement is
used.

• The most common type of defects

which are sought in fastener holes are
fine radial cracks.
 Inspection probes
• For the greatest sensitivity in the
detection of this type of defect what is
needed is, in effect, a surface probe coil
configuration.

• To this end the search coil is usually a

very small coil aligned radially but also
offset from the centre of the hole

• During the inspection of a hole the probe

is rotated through 360 degree.

• Not only will the presence of a crack be

noted, but also its exact position at the
circumference of the hole can be
determined.
Thank You