Module 1

Introduction to NDT and Liquid Penetrant Inspection

 Introduction
• In modern days, with rapidly growing industrial demand, it is necessary that
products should be reliable.
• Buyers buy a product with some expectation that the product will perform well and
give hassle free service for a stipulated period of time.
• Reliability of a machine is also dependent on the individual reliability of
components.
• Reliability comes through improving quality of level individual components.
• Non-destructive testing (NDT) plays an important role.
• Allows evaluation of defects in various materials/components.
• Characterization of material properties.
• Leads to confidence in material being used.
• Opt for lower factor of safety.
• Improve reliability.
• Used in aerospace, aircraft, nuclear establishments, power plants, etc.
• Synonymous terms are non-destructive evaluation (NDE) and non-destructive
inspection (NDI)
 Definition
• NDT may be defined as those testing methods in which the material under
inspection is not destroyed.

• The future usefulness of the material under test is not destroyed.

• Contrary to mechanical testing, where a material is made to fail/fracture.

• In NDT, the material retains all its properties, and the component can be used for
purposes it was intended for.

• Common NDT techniques include:

– Visual inspection
– Liquid penetrant inspection
– Magnetic particle testing
– Eddy current testing
– Radiography
– Ultrasonic testing
– Thermography
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
• Tests are made directly on the component or object.
• Many NDT techniques can be applied to a single part.
• So, all desired properties may be evaluated.
• In-service testing is possible.
• Repeated checks over a period of service is possible on a part.
• Very little preparation is sufficient.
• Most test methods are rapid.

Disadvantages
• Reliability needs to be verified at times.
• Skilled judgement and experience is required to interpret results and indications.
 Steps Involved
1. Preparation of test surface.

2. Application of testing medium/signal.

3. Modification of testing medium/signal due to presence of defects.

4. Conversion of modulated/changed signal into convenient form.

5. Interpretation of results obtained.

6. Verification of test results.

 Types of Flaws
• Defects which may be introduced du ring the manufacture of raw materials or the
production of castings.
– Stress cracking
– Shrinkage porosity
– Gas porosity
– Slag inclusions
– Segregation

• Defects which may be introduced during the manufacture of components

– Machining faults
– Heat treatment defects
– Welding defects
– Residual stress cracks
 Types of Flaws Contd…
• Defects which may be introduced during component assembly
– Missing parts
– Incorrectly assembled parts
– Additional welding defects
– Additional stress cracking

• Defects generated during service life

– Fatigue
– Corrosion
– Corrosion + fatigue
– Stress corrosion
– Wear
– Creep
 Factors Influencing Reliability
1. Human Factors: Education, Training, experience, working environment.

2. Testing Methods: Adequacy of method, standardization.

3. Test Object: Complexity of shape, accessibility of part in assembly, surface

condition.

4. Nature of defect: Location, shape, size, volume dispersion.

5. Knowledge base and facilities: Understanding of mechanism of interaction

between test object and information generating tool.

6. Risk factors: Probability of defect detection, statistical data for reliable decision
making.
 Main NDT System Features
System Features Applicability
Liquid Detection of defects which break Can be used for any metal,
penetrant the surface many plastics, glass and glazed
ceramics
Magnetic Detection of defects which break the surface Can only be used for
particle and sub-surface defects close to the surface ferromagnetic materials (most
steels and irons)
Electrical Detection of surface defects and some sub- Can be used for any metal
methods surface defects. Can also be used to measure the
(Eddy thickness of a non-conductive coating, such as
currents) paint, on a metal

Ultrasonic Detection of internal defects but can also detect Can be used for most materials
testing surface f1aws
Radiography Detection of internal defects, surface defects Can be used for many materials
and the correctness of part assemblies but there are !imitations on the
maximum material thickness
 Support Stages in NDT
Activity/Stage NDT Support
Design and product 1. Statistical evaluation of strength, stiffness and dimensional
development features.
2. Detection, location, sizing and volume dispersion of defects.
3. Assessment of variation in material homogeneity, isotropy,
residual stresses.
Manufacturing stage 1. Assessment of repeatability of manufacturing processes.
2. Detection, location, sizing and volume dispersion of defects.
3. Providing acceptance criteria for defects and material
inhomogeneity.
Life cycle management 1. Estimation of variation in material homogeneity, dimensions
due to corrosions, erosion, fatigue, creep, impact.
2. Generating defect-property correlating data and specific
information related to life extension of components.
3. Preparation of specifications/documents/test techniques for
periodic NDT inspection for health monitoring.
4. Determine the stage of damage in a structure till it reaches
critical stage of rejection and replacement.
 Visual and Optical Inspection
• One of the oldest and simplest NDT technique.

• Easy to apply, quick in interpretation, low cost.

• Commonly used for first inspection of any object.

• Visual inspection of a component by an experienced inspector can reveal the

following information:
– General condition of the component.
– Presence or absence of any oxide film or corrosive product.
– Presence or absence of any cracks, orientation of any cracks and position of cracks
relative various zones in case of welds.
– Surface porosity, unfilled craters, contour of weld beads, etc.
– Potential source of mechanical weakness such as sharp notches or misalignments.
– Results of visual inspection may be of great assistance to other tests
 Visual and Optical Inspection Contd…
• Cleaning of the object surface is necessary and very important.
• Sandblasting or shot blasting may be used.
• Inspection area should be properly illuminated.
• Some optical aids are:
– Mirrors
– Magnifying lenses
– Microscopes
– Periscopes
– Telescopes
– Endoscopes
– Flexible fibre optics boroscopes

• Applications include:
– Inspection of plant components for any leakage.
– Misalignment of parts.
– Corrosion, erosion, cracks, fracture, etc.
– Defects in weldments.
 Borescopes
• A borescope is a long, tubular optical device that illuminates and allows the
inspection of surfaces inside narrow tubes or difficult-to-reach chambers.
• The tube, which can be rigid or flexible with a wide variety of lengths and
diameters, provides the necessary optical connection between the viewing
end and an objective lens at the distant, or distal, tip of the borescope.
• This optical connection can be achieved in one of three different ways:
– By using a rigid tube with a series of relay lenses
– By using a tube (normally flexible but also rigid) with a bundle of
optical fibers
– By using a tube (normally flexible) with wiring that carries the image
signal from a charge-coupled device (CCD) imaging sensor at the distal
tip
• These three basic tube designs can have either fixed or adjustable focusing
of the objective lens at the distal tip.
Borescopes
 Borescopes
• The distal tip also has prisms and mirrors that define the direction and field
of view.
• These views vary according to the type and application of borescope.
• The design of illumination system also varies with the type of borescope.
• Generally, a fiber optic light guide and a lamp producing white light is used
in the illumination system, although ultraviolet light can be used to inspect
surfaces treated with liquid fluorescent penetrants.
• Light-emitting diodes at the distal tip are sometimes used for illumination
in videoscopes with working lengths greater than 15 m (50 ft).
 Flexible Borescopes

• A typical fiberscope consists of a light guide bundle, an image guide bundle, an objective lens,
interchangeable viewing heads, and remote controls for articulation of the distal tip.
• The second optical bundle, called the image guide, is used to carry the image formed by the
objective lens back to the eyepiece.
 Flexible Borescopes
• Fiberscopes are available in diameters from 1.4 to 13 mm (0.055 to 0.5 in.)
and in lengths up to 12 m (40 ft).
• Special quartz fiberscopes are available in lengths up to 90 m (300 ft).
• The fibers used in the light guide bundle are generally 30 m (0.001 in.) in
diameter.
• The fibers in the image guide must be precisely aligned so that they are in
an identical relative position to each other at their terminations for proper
image resolution.
• The diameter of the fibers in the image guide is another factor in obtaining
good image resolution.
• With smaller diameter fibers, a brighter image with better resolution can be
obtained by packing more fibers in the image guide.
• With higher resolution, it is then possible to use an objective lens with a
wider field of view and also to magnify the image at the eyepiece.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Introduction:
• Liquid penetrant inspection is a technique which can be used to detect
defects in a wide range of components, provided that the defect breaks the
surface of the material.

• The principle of the technique is that a liquid is drawn by capillary

attraction into the defect and, after subsequent development, any surface-
breaking defects may be rendered visible to the human eye.

• In order to achieve good defect visibility, the penetrating liquid will either
be colored with a bright and persistent dye or else contain a fluorescent
compound.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Introduction contd…:
• In the former type the dye is generally red and the developed surface can be
viewed in natural or artificial light. In the latter case the component must be
viewed under ultra-violet light if indications of defects are to be seen.

• It can be used to indicate the presence of defects such as cracks,

laminations, laps and zones of surface porosity in a wide variety of
components.

• The method is applicable to almost any component, whether it be large or

small, of simple or complex configuration, and it is employed for the
inspection of wrought and cast products in both ferrous and non-ferrous
metals and alloys, glassware and some polymer components.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Principle / Stages: Material surface clean Penetrant absorbed
a) Surface preparation. and grease-free into defect

b) Application of
penetrant.

Excess penetrant removed, Developer applied

c) Removal of excess
but liquid remains in defect to surface
penetrant.

d) Development.

e) Observation and
inspection.
Penetrant absorbed
into developer giving
indication of defect
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Surface preparation
• All surfaces of a component must be thoroughly cleaned and completely dried
before it is subjected to inspection.
• It is important that any surfaces to be examined for defects must be free from oil,
water, grease or other contaminants if successful indication of defects is to be
achieved.

Application of penetrant
• After surface preparation, liquid penetrant is applied in a suitable manner, so as to
form a film of penetrant over the component surface.
• The liquid film should remain on the surface for a period sufficient to allow for full
penetration into surface defects.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Removal of excess penetrant
• It is now necessary to remove excess penetrant from the surface of the component.
• Some penetrants can be washed off the surface with water, while others require the
use of specific solvents.
• Uniform removal of excess penetrant is necessary far effective inspection.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Development
• The development stage is necessary to reveal c1early the presence of any defect.
• The developer is usually a very fine chalk powder.
• This may be applied dry, but more commonly is applied by spraying the surface
with chalk dust suspended in a volatile carrier fluid.
• A thin uniform layer of chalk is deposited on the surface of the component.
• Penetrant liquid present within defects will be slowly drawn by capillary action into
the pores of the chalk.
• There will be some spread of penetrant within the developer and this will magnify
the apparent width of a defect.
• When a dye penetrant is used the dye color must be in sharp contrast to the uniform
white of the chalk-covered surface.
• The development stage may sometimes be omitted when a fluorescent penetrant is
used.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Observation and inspection
• After an optimum developing time has been allowed, the component surface is
inspected for indications of penetrant 'bleedback' into the developer.
• Dye penetrant inspection is carried out in strong lighting conditions, while
fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed in a suitable screened area using ultra-
violet light.
• The latter technique causes the penetrant to emit visible light, and defects are
brilliantly outlined.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
The following penetrant characteristics are desired:
• The penetrant must have the ability to enter extremely fine surface defects or other
openings in the component under test.

• The penetrant must have a good surface wetting ability and be able to maintain a
surface film on the component, and hence, continue to feed into a defect over a
considerable period of time.

• The penetrant should have the ability to drain away from the component well but
with a minimum amount of dragging-out of penetrant from within defects.

• If necessary, the penetrant should be capable of dissolving a path into contaminated

defects, through a wide range of contaminants.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
The following penetrant characteristics are desired:
• The liquid penetrant should be stable over a wide range of temperature and
humidity and should not form a scum or lose its volatile constituents while it is kept
in open tanks or when stored in drums.

• It must be possible to remove excess penetrants from component surfaces easily

without affecting the penetrant within any defects.

• A penetrant must resist drying out, and complete bleed out, during hot-air drying of
the component after the wash operation has been completed.

• The dye used in dye penetrants should be such that a good, deep colour can be
given to the penetrant by a comparatively small amount of dye.

• Red is the most commonly used colour in dye penetrants as this colour is the most
readily seen by the human eye.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
The following developer characteristics are desired:

• Absorption A developer must be easily wetted by the penetrant at the flaw, and
highly absorptive to draw the maximum amount of penetrant from the defect.

• Application It must be easy to apply and capable of forming a thin uniform surface
coating. In addition, it must be easy to remove after inspection.

• Background masking It must be capable of effectively masking out interference

from background colours, and capable of providing a contrasting background for
indications, especially when coloured penetrants are used.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
The following developer characteristics are desired:

• Physical characteristics It must have a grain size and a particle shape that will
disperse the penetrant at the flaw, so that a clearly defined indication is attained,
without excessive spread.

• In addition, the material must be neither hygroscopic nor excessively dusty.

• Chemical characteristics It must not contain ingredients which may be harmful to

either the parts being inspected or to the operator.

• Dry powders, aqueous powder suspension, solvent suspendible and water soluble.

• Applied by spray, immersion, passing through a developer dust cloud chamber.

 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
The following cleaner characteristics are desired:

• Acetone or carbon tetrachloride based fluid may be used.

• For bigger components cleaning may be done by dipping in a series of tanks

containing hot water, soap solution, detergents, cold water and chemical solution.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Water-washable system:

• This system (using a fluorescent or visible dye penetrant) is designed so that the
penetrant can be directly removed from the component surface by washing with
water.

• It is extremely important, however, to maintain a controlled washing operation,

especially where the removal of excess penetrant is by means of water sprays.

• Optimisation of the processing conditions:

– Water pressure and temperature
– Duration of rinse cyde,
– Surface condition of the workpiece
– The inherent removal characteristies of the penetrant.

• Even so, it is possible that penetrant may be washed away from small defects.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Post-emulsification system:

• When it is necessary to detect minute defects, high-sensitivity penetrants that are

not water washable are usually employed.

• Such penetrants have an oil base and require an additional processing step.

• An emulsifier is applied after the penetrant has had sufficient time to be absorbed
into defects.

• The major advantage of this system is that the emulsifier renders the excess
penetrant soluble in water, and hence, capable of being rinsed away.

• The system is more expensive, because of the penetrant-emulsifier costs and the
additional time required for the operations.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Solvent-removable system:
• It is often necessary, to inspect only a small area of a component, or to inspect a
component in situ.

• Solvent-removable penetrants are widely used for such situations.

• Normally, the same type of solvent is used both for pre-cleaning and for the
removal of excess penetrant.

• There are two basic solvent types: flammable and non-flammable.

• The flammable cleaners are potential fire hazards but are free from halogens, while
the non-flammable cleaners are halogenated solvents, but have high toxicity.

• The excess surface penetrant is usually removed by wiping the component with a
lint-free cloth moistened with solvent.

• The costs are relatively high, because of high material expense and the fact that it is
a more labor-intensive process.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Advantages of LPI:

• The liquid penetrant process is comparatively simple.

• The equipment necessary is cheaper than that required for other non-destructive
testing systems.
• Portable kit (aerosol spray cans).
• High sensitivity to small surface defects.
• Parts with complex shape can be routinely investigated.
• The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic
and nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
• Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at
low cost.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
• Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
• Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Disadvantages of LPI:

• Only surface flaws can be detected.

• Only non-porous surfaces can be inspected.
• False indications, since each pore will register as a potential defect.
• Pre-cleaning is critical.
• Wide shallow cracks are difficult to detect.
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be
removed prior to LPI.
• The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
• Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
• Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
• Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
• Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
 Principles of Fluid Mechanics
• LPI is directly concerned with behaviour of fluids on surfaces.
• Surface tension and capillarity.
• Surface tension: Affects flow of fluids on a surface to be inspected.
• Capillarity: Driving force in movement of penetrant into and out of the crack.
• The movement of fluid into the surface breaking defect is a function of contact
angle as well as surface tension of fluid.

Surface tension Contact angle

Density of liquid Size of opening

 Range of Applications of LPI

Mechanized robot scanner for on

site penetrant inspection of butt
Application of LPI to large size weld in nuclear power plant piping.
aircraft systems, a photograph of
cleaning station.
 Range of Applications of LPI
Inspection of composites and adhesively bonded structures:

• Since penetrants seek entry into openings, they are used for composite materials
flaw detection.
• Enter through sides, disbonds in layers – provide opening to penetrant.
• Inspect impact damage of composites – aircraft structures outer skins.

Leak detection:

• Very straightforward application of LPI principle.

• Fluid enters through crevice by capillary action and follows the boundary of
anomaly.
• If penetrant is discovered in a wall surface opposite to it – a path exists through the
wall.
• Castings, pressure vessels, pipes, welded connections.
• Typical indications are bleeding spots, lines, multiple spots.
 Safety Considerations
Effects on personnel:

• Harmful penetrant effects can be toxicity and skin irritation.

• Eye damage from chemical exposure or UV emitted.
• Toxicity can cause headaches, nausea, chest pains, respiratory effects, skin
irritation.
• Cleaning agents can have harmful effects – fumes from acidic or salt bath cleaning.
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons or alcohols release fumes.
• Base material for solvent based penetrants are volatile and toxic.
• Developers have very fine dust particles, wet developers may be flammable.
• Irritation can be caused by emulsifiers.
• Most toxic: Ethanol, acetone, trichlorotrifluoroethane.
• Precautions: Proper clothing, gloves and protective glasses, adequate ventilation.
• Non toxic: Kerosene, high flash point naphtha.
 Safety Considerations
Fire and explosion:

• Fluids that are volatile and flammable – potentially hazardous.

• Flammability indicated by flash point.
• Penetrants having no flash point to flash points below 8 degree.
• Kerosene has highest flash point of 65 degrees.
• For small tanks or parts risk is less.
• For larger parts or tanks (open) vapors might escape.
 Safety Considerations
Effect of ultraviolet light on human eye:

• UV light correctly filtered pose no risk.

• Damaged lights result in short wavelength UV light to escape.
• Protective goggles reduce risk.
• Discomfort may be caused when large amount of the surroundings fluoresce.
• This happens when operators hand or clothes are spotted with penetrant.
• Some natural materials used in clothing may fluoresce.
Thank You