ARZU YORKAN
114
TURKEY’S RENEWABLE
ENERGY POLICY – TOWARDS
ACHIEVING ‘2023’ TARGETS
“RESOURCE CAPACITY,
CURRENT SITUATION,
SHORTCOMINGS, AND
REMEDIES”
ARZU YORKAN
PHDC IN POLITICAL SCIENCE, FREE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN
Foreign sources provide 70 per cent of
Turkish energy supply comes from, notably
oil and gas. The country is therefore heavily
dependent on external suppliers: more than
90 per cent for its oil and close to 100 per
cent for gas.
INTRODUCTION ing private investors and promot-
ing awareness of renewable energy
As an emerging economy, currently across the country.
ranked seventeenth in the world,
Turkey’s energy demand has been In addition to official government
rapidly increasing, and consequent- goals for renewables, the motto
ly so has its import dependence. For- of ‘green energy’ has already been
eign sources provide 70 per cent of adopted by the Turkish private sec-
Turkish energy supply comes from, tor, which has been recently trying 115
notably oil and gas. The country is to disseminate this concept in order
therefore heavily dependent on ex- to increase business opportunities
CASPIAN REPORT, FALL 2014
ternal suppliers: more than 90 per in this promising field. Furthermore,
cent for its oil and close to 100 per the awareness of environmental pro-
cent for gas. However, Turkey pos- tection is rapidly growing among the
sesses enormous potential in its re- Turkish public; they are much more
newable energy resources. It has al- concerned about the climate change
ready begun utilising this potential and its dramatic consequences than
where economically and technologi- they were in the past. Thus, the is-
cally possible, particularly for the sues around the high level of de-
promotion of wind, geothermal and pendence on foreign fossil fuels and
solar energy. Hydropower, notably, environmental protection together
has been a source of power for dec- with private business interests have
ades. Since 2000, the share of these been pushing the Turkish govern-
non-traditional renewable sources ment and its industry to produce
in Turkish total energy consump- and implement more pro-renewable
tion has been gradually increas- policies.
ing, though not at the rate required POTENTIALS AND CURRENT USES
to meet market demand. To this OF RENEWABLES
end, Turkey has declared a decisive
target for 2023: renewable energy Although Turkey is not a rich coun-
sources will account for 30 per cent try in terms of fossil fuels, it pos-
of total electricity generation. In or- sesses remarkable renewable en-
der to achieve this goal, Turkey has ergy resources such as hydropower,
taken a number of initiatives, such solar, geothermal and wind energy.
as enacting legislation, subsidis- In terms of global rankings, Turkey
is 12th in the world for geothermal to 1920s and 1930s, and it has since
potential; 16th for wind capacity, become a very important primary
and 27th for solar (Energy Ministry energy supply source for Turkish
2012). Hydropower is key among electricity generation. Although
the renewable energy resources, Turkey also has significant capac-
currently supplying 25 per cent of ity in its non-traditional renewable
Turkish electricity generation. The sources (such as wind, geothermal
technical potential of Turkish hy- and solar energy), it has not yet pro-
dropower is 216 billion KWh / year, moted their use to the same extent
and its economic potential is 140 as hydropower.
billion kWh / year – this economic
As for wind energy, Turkey enjoys
a prime strategic location, sur-
ALTHOUGH TURKEY IS NOT A RICH COUNTRY
rounded on three sides by water. It
IN TERMS OF FOSSIL FUELS, IT POSSESSES has 3500 km of coastline; the north-
REMARKABLE RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES. west (Marmara Sea) and southwest
(Aegean Sea) areas are particularly
windy (see Figure 2). The country
potential is equal to 16 per cent of has 48.000 MW potential in wind
Europe’s economic potential (YEGM energy (YEGM 2013), and has grad-
ARZU YORKAN
2013). The installed capacity of hy- ually begun to utilise this. In the
dropower has gradually been in- 1990s the installed capacity of wind
creasing; between 2002 and 2011 energy in Turkey was below 9 MW;
Turkey has added approximately by July 2012 it had risen to 2041
6000 MW of capacity (see Figure MW (TUREB 2012) (see Figure 3).
116 1). It is continuing to open new hy- In just a few months, it had jumped
dropower stations, and investment up to 2.106 MW (October statistics,
in this sector is higher than that of Energy Ministry 2012). As for geo-
the other renewable sources since thermal, Turkey’s location endows
in technical terms it is much easier it with optimal geological conditions,
to interconnect with existing pow- placing Turkey 12th for geothermal
er grids. Hydropower is not a new capacity in the global terms. The cur-
source for Turkey; its use dates back rent potential of Turkey is equal to
Figure 1: Turkish Installed Capacity in Hydropower between 2000 and 2011 (MW)
Source: YEGM (2013).
Figure 2: Turkey’s Map for its Wind Potential
(Turkey is surrounded by the Black Sea, Aegean and the Mediterranean)
Source: Google
31.500 MW (Energy Ministry 2014). as a thermal source for its tourism
Its installed capacity for power gen- and health sectors. In 2012, for ex-
eration in 2012 was 114.2 MW (En- ample, the country used 4.809 MWt,
ergy Ministry 2012), compared with compared with 3.100 MWt in 2004
77 MW in 2009 (TTK 2012) and just (Energy Minister 2012).
17.5 MW in 2002 (Energy Ministry
2012). The first geothermal power In terms of solar energy, Turkey is
station in Turkey was constructed very sunny country. The sunniest re- 117
in 1984, at that time only the sec- gion, Southeast Anatolia, gets 2.993
ond one in Europe; the first was in hours/year of sunshine and even
CASPIAN REPORT, FALL 2014
Italy (TMMOB-MMO 2008). Turkey the least sunny region, the Black
has also been utilising geothermal Sea, gets 1.971 hours/year. Thus
energy as a source for heating and the annual average is 2.482 hours
Figure 3: Developing Wind Energy in Turkey between 1998-2012
Source: TUREB (2012)
Figure 4: Solar Energy Potential Atlas of Turkey
Source: YEGM (2014).
Tablo 53: Türkiye’nin Güneş Enerjisi Potansiyelinin Bölgelere Dağılımı
Bölge Toplam Güneş Enerjisi Güneşlenme Süresi (Saat/
(KWh/m2-Yıl) Yıl)
Güneydoğu Anadolu 1460 2993
Akdeniz 1390 2956
Doğu Anadolu 1365 2664
ARZU YORKAN
İç Anadolu 1314 2628
Ege 1304 2738
Marmara 1168 2409
Karadeniz 1120 1971
118 Source: EİE (2006)
Figure 5: Solar Energy Potential and Sunshine Duration in Turkey by Each Region Source:
(TMMOB-MMO, 2008)
(The first column shows the regions; respectively, the Southeast Anatolia, the Mediterranean, the
East Anatolia, the Aegean, the Marmara and the Black Sea; the second solar capacity; and the third
column indicates sunshine duration (hours/year))
of sunshine (TMMOB-MMO 2008) the modern biomass sources to its
(see Figures 4/5/6). Thus Turkey’s energy supply mix. Though there is
solar energy capacity is equal to no noticeable development in this
9.121 kWh / m2 -year (ibid.), put- area for power generation, some
ting it 27th in the world. Despite this legislative action in relation to the
major potential, Turkey has not yet transport sector and an initial stage
built any solar power stations but of implementations is on the agenda.
has been utilising it for water heat-
ing. Turkey has 12 million m2 for the In sum, Turkey’s renewable en-
installed solar collectors producing ergy sector offers an outstanding
hot water, which places it 4th in the resource capacity, and it is taking
world, with a 10 per cent ratio after action to maximise this potential
China (55%), the EU (13%) and Ja- in response to its growing energy
pan (13%) (ibid.) (see Figure 7). For needs. The total installed capacity
the biomass sources, Turkey is al- of renewable energy sources was
ready taken action in this direction. only 12.277 MW in 2002, and this
The traditional wood and animal has been gradually increased over
waste was utilised in the 1960s and the past decade by 65 per cent, to
1970s, and over time their share has 21.114 MW in 2012 (Energy Min-
been mostly replaced by fossil fu- istry 2012). By source, in 2011, the
els. But Turkey is now trying to add installed capacity for hydropower
Aylar Güneşlenme Süresi
(Saat/ay)
Ocak 103,0
Şubat 115,0
Mart 165,0
Nisan 197,0
Mayıs 273,0
Haziran 325,0
Temmuz 365,0
Ağustos 343,0
Eylül 280,0
Ekim 214,0
Kasım 157,0
Aralık 103,0
Toplam 2640
Ortalama 7,2 saat/gün
Figure 6: Monthly Sunshine Duration in Turkey
Source: (TMMOB-MMO, 2008)
(The first column shows the months from January to December, while the second indications
sunshine duration (hours/day))
provided 32.3 per cent while the by these renewables (see Figure 8).
share of wind and geothermal was The next section explains the insti-
equal to 3.8 per cent. That is, by tutional development process of 119
2011 more than 36 per cent of the the Turkish renewable energy sec-
total installed capacity in Turkish tor, and its national targets for 2023
CASPIAN REPORT, FALL 2014
power generation was produced – the centenary of the foundation of
Figure 7: Installed Solar Collector Areas in the World in 2008 (%)
Source: Data from (TMMOB-MMO, 2008).
ARZU YORKAN
Figure 8: The share of sources in total electricity installed capacity in 2011
Source: Data from (TKİ, 2012)
the modern Turkish Republic. The five decades, since the 1960s. By
country is therefore eager to raise contrast, wind, solar, and geother-
120 the level of its economic wealth and mal resources arrived on the agenda
industrial development by achieving two decades later. Although national
the goals it has already established five-year programmes envisaged
to be reached up till this date. The strategies and plans for these re-
energy sector holds an important sources from the 1980s, their pro-
place, as the driver of economic de- motion has remained very limited,
velopment, though unfortunately it with the exception of hydropower.
remains highly vulnerable to supply By contrast, the ‘Law on Renewable
security problems. Energy’ (Nr.5346) enacted in 2005
and the ‘Strategy Paper on Electric-
INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ity Market and Supply Security’ is-
PROCESS, AND STRATEGIES FOR sued in 2009 have played significant
‘2023’ roles in developing renewable ener-
gy in Turkey, since both have aimed
The development of Turkish renew- to increase the share of all renewa-
able energy sources and the strate- ble sources in electricity generation
gies for their promotion has been (see the Article 1 of Law 5346).1
periodically restated by the five-year
national development plans of the The Law on Renewable Energy sets
Turkish Republic. Strategies for in- out a legal framework for produc-
creasing use of hydropower by these tion, investment and subsidies for
plans have been in place for the past the renewable energy resources.
1.
Article I (Turkish): MADDE 1- (1) Bu Kanunun amacı; yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının elektrik enerjisi
üretimi amaçlı kullanımının yaygınlaştırılması, bu kaynakların güvenilir, ekonomik ve kaliteli biçimde
ekonomiye kazandırılması, kaynak çeşitliliğinin artırılması, sera gazı emisyonlarının azaltılması, atıkların
değerlendirilmesi, çevrenin korunması ve bu amaçların gerçekleştirilmesinde ihtiyaç duyulan imalat
sektörünün geliştirilmesidir.“ (Kanun, 5346 Sayılı 2005 Tarihli YEK’in Elektrik Enerjisi Üretiminde
Kullanımına İlişkin Kanun, 2005)
The Strategy Paper has established issued by the Ministry of Energy in
specific targets for each single re- 2010, namely that that Turkey shall 121
newable source by 2023. The Paper generate 30 per cent of its electricity
states that the share of all renewable from renewable resources by 2023
CASPIAN REPORT, FALL 2014
energy sources within total power (Energy Ministry 2010). For solar
generation shall be increased to 30 energy, the Ministry of Energy set
per cent by 2023. Under this frame- a new goal in 2012, stating that the
work, each source should meet a installed capacity for solar energy
series of criteria by this date, as fol- should reach 3000 MW by 2023 (En-
lows. For hydropower, all technical ergy Ministry 2012). To sum up, Tur-
and economic potential whose total key intends to raise the total share
installed capacity is currently equal of its renewable energy resources to
30 per cent of its total power gener-
to 36.000 MW shall be utilised. For
ation by 2023, by improving the in-
wind energy, installed capacity will
stalled capacities for each source as
be increased up to 20.000 MW; as
follows: for hydropower by 36.000
for geothermal, its entire capacity,
MW; for wind by 20.000 MW; for so-
estimated at 600 MW, will be uti-
lar by 3.000 MW; for geothermal by
lised. For solar, technological devel- 600 MW.
opment is the focus – the technology
needed for electricity generation In addition to these legislative devel-
from solar sources shall be obtained opments, Turkey established a new
by 2023. Finally for biomass, the pa- General-Directorate for Renewable
per emphasises the necessary legis- Energy (YEGM) in November 2011.
lative and technological changes in Its task has been to monitor the
order to enable power generation. use of renewables across the coun-
The same goals were also repeated try, disseminate policy and practi-
by the ‘Strategic Plan for 2010-2014’ cal implications of these sources
and contribute to their institutional power stations, since in Turkey the
development. In addition to the re- construction of gas power stations is
newables sector, the Directorate technically and politically much eas-
is also responsible for developing ier than constructing a power plant
policies for energy efficiency, cli- from wind, geothermal, and solar.
With the exception of hydropower,
the interconnection of renewable
THE STRATEGY PAPER HAS ESTABLISHED SPECIFIC energy sources with the national
TARGETS FOR EACH SINGLE RENEWABLE SOURCE electricity grids are still at the ini-
BY 2023. tial stages (YEGM 2013), which has
created a technical problem – par-
ticularly in terms of wind energy,
mate change and high-tech in these the interconnection of which is very
fields. Following the publication of limited, especially in the west, which
the Law and the Strategy Papers and is windier than the eastern part. On
the other hand, finding locations for
the establishment of the Directorate,
the construction of power plants is
private industry and civil society or-
a time-consuming process involving
ganisations have also been involved
bureaucratic hurdles such as the al-
in policy-making and the develop-
location of forested areas, receiving
ARZU YORKAN
ment of the renewable energy sec-
licences for construction; obtaining
tor. Turkey subsequently launched a
loans and subsidies; and poor inter-
plan to gradually increase electricity institutional coordination.
generation of electricity from these
resources, especially wind. However, R&D on high-tech and innovation in
122 the following section will explain relation to green energy in Turkey
why the country’s green potential has not yet developed to a sufficient
remains under exploited and under level. The problems are two-fold: one
utilised. is financial, and the other is that re-
search and development in this field
LIMITATIONS: INVESTMENT, R&D,
remains in the very early stages. The
AND INNOVATION
national budget allocation for R&D
Despite the significant potential in the field of renewable energy is
outlined above, Turkey has not yet very low in comparison to the world
taken sufficient action on renewable average. For example, in 2008 it was
resources to generate a viable alter- 0.7 per cent, while the world aver-
native energy supply. Inadequate age was 2-3 per cent (TMMOB-MMO
levels of investment, technological 2008). Additionally, most Turkish
development and R&D (research universities / research institutions,
and development), alongside the especially in the social science area,
signing of long-term gas contracts, do not have research departments
particularly with Russia, remain dedicated to green energy/climate
barriers to the development of the change/environmental protec-
renewable energy sources in Turkey. tion etc., which is necessary for the
Domestic investment in the promo- country’s policy-making processes.
tion of renewable energy resourc- On the other hand, a very limited
es, especially for non-traditional number of universities/centres in
sources – wind, solar, geothermal, the natural science field have been
and modern biomasses – remains conducting research to advance high
inadequate. Turkish domestic pri- tech innovations in renewable ener-
vate investors have preferred, and gy production, CCS (carbon capture
still prefer, to invest mostly in gas and storage), hydrogen etc. However,
this research remains at the initial ish energy policy focuses on increas-
stages, and technological break- ing the use of hydropower, it has un-
throughs are highly unlikely in the fortunately been experiencing water
near future. Furthermore, there is a scarcity for the past couple of years
lack of well-developed cooperation due to drought problems. It is also
between the industry, government embroiled in an international dis- 123
and scientific institutions in this pute over its main rivers, which sup-
context. These various deficiencies,
CASPIAN REPORT, FALL 2014
ply an important part of its hydro-
together with a low level of public power generation. These problems
and private investment, have lim- have raised the question of whether
ited the development of high tech Turkey will be able to fulfil the 2023
innovation in green technology in target for hydropower. There is no
particular and the green economy concern in relation to supply scar-
in general. By contrast, the more city for wind, geothermal and solar
industrialised countries are already energy sources; there the problems
generating fierce competition - not are related to deficiencies in tech-
only to protect the planet from the nology, investment, and R&D.
GHG emissions, most of which were
created by them, but also in order to So how can Turkey deal with these
advance their economic prosperity. various challenges? Turkey has al-
ready launched initiatives for co-
Moreover, Turkey remains reliant
operation in the renewable energy
on foreign gas. It has been signing
sector with more developed coun-
long-term contracts with its suppli-
tries such as Germany. Through this
ers, namely Russia, for a period of 20
to 25 years. During the past decades, energy cooperation, Turkey hopes
the share of gas in its power genera- to transfer the technology its in-
tion has sharply increased, and now dustry needs, and to gain access
supplies half of Turkish electricity to more foreign capital in order to
demand. This poses a major obstacle overcome the lack of investment
to the promotion of renewables. An- faced by its domestic sector. In ad-
other point is that even though Turk- dition to bilateral cooperation, in-
TURKEY HAS NOT YET TAKEN SUFFICIENT ACTION CONCLUSION
ON RENEWABLE RESOURCES TO GENERATE A
Turkey has substantial capacity in
VIABLE ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SUPPLY. terms of its renewable energy re-
sources – hydropower, wind, solar,
ternal action should also play a key geothermal and biomasses. It has
role, especially in terms of advanc- already taken action to increase the
ing research and development in the share of these sources in its energy
field of more environmental-friendly supply mix in order to first of all
technologies – for more power gen- reduce its dependence on external
eration from the renewables sources, fossil fuels, and secondly to develop
for more energy efficiency, and for a more sustainable energy future
cleaner production from fossil fuels energy policy. The Turkish energy
sector is growing rapidly, currently
like coal, etc. Accordingly, Turkey
experiencing the second largest
must build strong domestic coop-
demand growth in the world after
eration among its industry, govern- China, and a well-established en-
ment and scientific institutions. The ergy policy for its renewable sector
other remedy is a policy whereby will help the country to enhance its
Turkey avoids signing long-term gas supply security and boost its eco-
ARZU YORKAN
agreements (i.e. for twenty or more nomic growth. Under the ‘green
years). On the other hand, this rais- economy’ motto, technological in-
es another question: ‘How we can novations and more green energy
guarantee the flow of gas in today’s production will mean not only alter-
international context, with the nu- native energy supplies but also new
124 merous geopolitical and economic jobs. The government’s 2023 green
conflicts in the gas trade?’ A bet- energy goals, the struggles to put
ter alternative could be to encour- them into action, and the country’s
age domestic and foreign investors newly emergent cooperation with
the more-industrialised renewable
to construct green power stations
countries together demonstrate that
in order to reduce the share of gas
Turkey is highly ambitious, and de-
within the total power generation termined to reach these targets.
and the heating sector, which would
in turn mean better supply security
and a more climate-friendly energy
mix for Turkey.
The issue of the country’s major po-
tential as a gas transit country be-
tween the east and west is of course
another important matter for do-
mestic policy. But for its domestic
consumption, Turkey is heavily de-
pendent on gas, and more than half
of its supply comes from a single
country, Russia. Thus Turkey faces a
significant challenge in terms of the
security of its gas supply. The coun-
try can at least limit reliance on gas
by gradually reducing its share with-
in its total power generation.
125
CASPIAN REPORT, FALL 2014