CA FOUNDATION SETS, RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS

Chapter 7
Sets, Relations & Functions
collection of well-defined Roster form Set builder form
Sets A = {a, e, i, o, u} A = set of vowels
distinct objects

Properties of sets
 Null set: Empty set containing no elements. Represented by { } or φ
 Singleton set: Set containing only 1 element. Eg: { 1 }
 Equal set: Set containing only 1 element. Eg: If A = set of natural numbers, B = set of +ve
integers, then A = B
 Subsets: The number of sub-sets of a set is 2n. If A = { 1 , 2 , 3 }, subset = 23 = 8
φ, { 1 }, { 2 }, { 3 }, { 1 , 2 }, { 1 , 3 }, { 2, 3 }, { 1, 2, 3 }
Subset are denoted by ⊂ or ⊆. i.e., { 1 , 2 } ⊂ { 1 , 2 , 3 }
 Proper Subsets: Sub-sets does not include the main set. => 2n - 1, i.e., 23 - 1 = 7
φ, { 1 }, { 2 }, { 3 }, { 1 , 2 }, { 1 , 3 }, { 2, 3 }
 Power Set: Collection of all subset
P(A) = { φ, { 1 }, { 2 }, { 3 }, { 1 , 2 }, { 1 , 3 }, { 2, 3 }, { 1, 2, 3 } }

Relation between sets

For the given sets, A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
 S => S is the universal set since it contains all elements Rules of Set
of A & B  A∩S=A
 A ∩ B => A intersection B contains all common elements in  A∪S=S
both sets i.e., {1, 3}  (A ∪ B)´ = A´ ∩ B´
 A ∪ B => A union B contains all unique elements in both sets  (A ∩ B)´ = A´ ∪ B´
i.e., {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}
 A - B => Contains all unique elements in A which are not present in B i.e., {2}
 B - A => Contains all unique elements in B which are not present in A i.e., {5, 7, 9}
 A´ => A complement refers to all elements of S which is not present in A i.e.,
{4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
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CA FOUNDATION SETS, RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS

 A x B => Cartesian Product of A & B refers to all pairs of (a, b) where “a” belong to Set
A and “b” belongs to set B i.e., { (1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (1,7), (1,9), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (2,7),
(2,9), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5), (3,7), (3,9) }

Euler - Venn Diagram

 n(A ∪ B) => n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B) A B
 n(A ∪ B ∪ C) => n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C)
- n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
 n(Only B & C) => n(B ∩ C) - n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
 n(Only C) => n(C) - n(A ∩ C) - n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) C

instance where atleast 1 element A B

Relations 1 2
of Set A has a mapping to Set B 2 3
3 4

Types of Relations

Reflexive Symmetric Transitive Equivalence

If Element a is If a is related to b, If a is related to b If a relation is
related to itself then b is related to a & b is related to c, reflexive, symmetric
Eg: a is equal to a Eg: If a knows b, then a is related to c & transitive
then b knows a Eg: If a ∥ b & b ∥ c Eg: x = y
then, a ∥ c

co-domain co-domain
a relation where all elements of Set A
functions
are mapped to any 1 element of Set B. F : A → B

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CA FOUNDATION SETS, RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS

NOTES:
 It is not necessary for elements in Set A to have a unique element in Set B.
A B A B A B
1 2 1 2 1 2

Case C
Case B
Case A

2 4 2 4 2 4
3 6 3 6 3 6

Function NOT a function. NOT a function.

Set A has 1 image each in B 2 is not mapped 3 is mapped twice
 Domain: All Elements of Set A
 Co-Domain: All Elements of Set B (whether mapped or not)
 Range: Elements of Set B which are mapped to Set A
Eg: In Case A, Domain = {1, 2, 3}, Co-domain = {2, 4, 6}, Range = {2, 4}
Note: If the elements are not finite, express them using circle or square bracket
[Refer Linear Inequality Page 7]
 In graphical terms, a relation becomes a function if a parallel line drawn to y axis
intersects with the equation at only one point.

Types of functions

One-One Onto Constant Equal

A B A B A B A B
1 2 1 2 1 2 A 10
2 4
3 6 2 4 2 4 B 20
8 3 6 3 6 C 30

Elements in Set B is Co-domain = Range Domain is mapped to Mapping in Set A &

mapped only once one element in Set B Set B are unique

Many-one Into Identity

A B A B A B
1 2 1 2 1 1
2 4 2 4 2 2
3 6 3 6 3 3

Elements in Set B Co-domain ≠ Range Domain = Range

mapped more than once
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CA FOUNDATION SETS, RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS

Composite function Where 2 functions are involved such that f(A) = B and g(B) = C, then
it can be said that g[f(A)] = C. This can be written as gof(A)
A f(x) B g(x) C Here, f(1) = 2, g(2) = 4
1 2 4
2 4 8 Therefore, gof(1) or g[f(1)] = 4
3 6 12 and fog(4) or f[g(4)] = 1

Inverse function If f is a one-one and Onto function, such that f(x) = y, then inverse
function f-1 (y) = x. For eg: if f(1) = 2, then f-1 (2) = 1.

Steps to find inverse function of f(x) [say f(x) = 2x]

Step 1: Write the given equation in terms of y i.e., y = 2x
Step 2: Derive the equation of x in terms of y i.e., x = y/2
Step 3: Replace x with y and y with x in all places i.e., y = x/2
=> f-1 = x/2

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CA FOUNDATION LIMITS &CONTINUITY
Chapter 7
Limits & Continuity
value that a function approaches the
limit value x tends to
lim f(x)
x→a
function

output for the given input values

Steps to solving limits

Step 1: Determine whether the limit exists.
A limit for a function only exists when Left hand limit = Right hand limit
lim f(x) = lim - f(x) = lim
lim +f(x)
f(x)= lim + f(x)
x→a- x→a
x→a x→
x→aa x→ a

Step 2: Substitute “a” in f(x) to check if the value is determinate or undefined

Undefined Defined
a , ∞, ∞ - ∞, 1∞, √-a, 0∞, 00, ∞0 0 = 0, a = 0, ∞+∞=∞
0 ∞ a ∞

Step 3: If f(x) is determinate, compute value of limit substituting a in f(x)

Step 4: If value is undefined, using any of the following methods, to make f(x) determinate.
Factorisation method Differentiate method Rationalisation method
(applicable in case of fraction (applicable in case value (applicable if f(x) has
with quadratic equations) of f(x) is 0/0 or ∞/∞) irrational equations)
Factorise equations to eliminate Differentiate Nr & Dr until Multiple Nr and Dr with
common factor in Nr and Dr to f(x) becomes determinate conjugate pairs. Eliminate
remove the undefined form Note: dy
dx
xn = n(x)n-1, dy
dx
a=0 undefined form
Calculator trick
(applicable only in case of above four and not when standard functions are used)
If x → a, substitute the x in the equation with marginally high number, eg: 0 becomes 0.01
If x → ∞, substitute the x in the equation with 100
The nearest option resembling with value arrived in the calculator is the answer
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CA FOUNDATION LIMITS & CONTINUITY

Standard functions of limits:

ef(x) - 1 af(x) - 1 log[1+f
log[(1 +xf(x)]
] -1
 lim = 1  lim = log a  lim
lim
f(x)
=1 = 1
x→0 f(x) x→0 f(x) x→0
x→0 f(x)
n
f(x) - an x
 lim = n(a)n-1  lim f(x) = e x[f(x) - 1]
x→a f(x) - a x→∞

a function which at a given interval has no break in the

continuity
graph of the function in the entire interval range

A function is said to be continuous only if the following condition is satisfied:

lim f x = lim f x = lim + f(x) OR f(a-) = f(a) = f(a+)
x→a- x→a x→ a

Modulus function
Modulus function (or absolute value function) means reporting only +ve value of the
function as the output. For eg, |2| = 2 and |-2| is also 2

In case of a modulus function i.e., |f(x)|, the limit of the functions can be arrived as follows:
f(x) = f(x) for f(x) ≥ 0
- f(x) for f(x) < 0

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