Endocrine system
Introduction
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✓ The endocrine system is a series of ductless glands that secrete
messenger molecules called hormones into the circulation.
✓ The circulating hormones travel to distant body cells and signal
characteristic physiological responses in those cells.
✓ Through its hormonal signals, the endocrine system controls and
integrates the functions of other organ systems in the body.
✓ In its general integrative role, the endocrine system resembles the
nervous system, with which it closely interacts.
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• However, because hormones travel more slowly than nerve impulses, the
endocrine system tends to regulate slow processes, such as growth and
metabolism, rather than processes that demand rapid responses, such as
the contraction of skeletal muscle.
• Some major processes controlled by the endocrine system are:
✓ growth of the body and of the reproductive organs,
✓ the mobilization of body defenses against stress,
✓ maintenance of proper blood chemistry, and
✓ control of the rate of oxygen use by the body’s cells.
• The scientific study of hormones and the endocrine glands is called
endocrinology.
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• The endocrine cells of the body are partly contained within “pure” endocrine
organs and partly within organs of other body systems.
• The purely endocrine organs are:
✓ the pituitary gland at the base of the brain;
✓ the pineal gland in the roof of the diencephalon;
✓ the thyroid and parathyroid glands in the neck; and
✓ the adrenal glands on the kidneys (each adrenal gland is actually two glands, an
adrenal cortex and an adrenal medulla).
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✓ Organs that belong to other body systems but also contain a large
proportion of endocrine cells include the pancreas, the thymus, the
gonads, and the hypothalamus of the brain.
✓ Because the hypothalamus produces hormones in addition to
performing its nervous functions, it is considered a neuroendocrine
organ.
✓ Numerous other organs, for example the heart, digestive tract,
kidneys, and skin, also contain scattered or small pockets of cells that
secrete hormones.
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. Control of Hormone Secretion
• The various endocrine cells of the body are stimulated to make and secrete their
hormones by three major types of stimuli : humoral, neural, and hormonal stimuli.
• Endocrine glands that secrete their hormones in direct response to changing levels of
ions or nutrients in the blood are said to be controlled by humoral stimuli (humoral
relating to the blood and other body fluids).This is the simplest endocrine control
mechanism.
• For example, the cells of the parathyroid gland directly monitor the concentration of
calcium ions (Ca2+) in the blood and then respond to any decline in this
concentration by secreting a hormone that acts to increase blood calcium levels.
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• The secretion of a few endocrine glands is controlled by neural
stimuli.
• For example, sympathetic nerve fibers stimulate cells in the adrenal
medulla to release epinephrine and norepinephrine during fight-or-
flight situations.
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• Many endocrine glands secrete their hormones in response to
hormonal stimuli received from other endocrine glands; that is,
certain hormones have the sole purpose of promoting the secretion of
other hormones.
• For example, the hypothalamus of the brain secretes some hormones that
stimulate the anterior part of the pituitary gland to secrete its hormones, which
in turn stimulate hormonal secretion by other endocrine glands: cortex, and the
gonads.
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Endocrine system
✓ Is a group of specialized organs and body tissues
that produce, store and secrete chemical substances
known as hormones.
Function
✓ Regulates the body’s growth and development
✓ Control the function of various tissues and
organs
✓ Support pregnancy and other reproductive
functions
✓ Regulates metabolism
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Hormones
✓ are specific organic substances that act as the chemical messenger of the
endocrine system.
✓ three kinds of hormones (proteins, steroids, and amines) are derived either from
amino acids or cholesterol
Proteins
• are composed of amino acids bonded together in peptide chains
• calcitonin from thyroid gland
• hormones secreted by pituitary gland, pancreas and parathyroid gland
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Steroids
✓ Is a lipid synthesized from cholesterol
✓ Cortisol, cortisone, estrogen, progesterone and testosterone
✓ Hormones produced by the adrenal cortex
Amines
✓ are produced from amino acids but do not contain peptide bonds
✓ thyroxin
✓ epinephrine
✓ nor epinephrine
✓ melatonin
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✓ The usual action of hormones is to speed up or slow down cellular process in
the target tissue
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Pituitary gland
• lies below the hypothalamus and attached by a stalk (infendibulum)
• lies in hypophyseal fossa of sella turcica of sphenoid bone
✓ it has a size and shape of pea and often referred as a master
gland (secrets several hormones that regulate the function of
the other endocrine glands)
✓ has two lobes; anterior and posterior
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Anterior lobe
(adenohypophysis)
• Has three parts
– pars distalis
– pars intermedia
– pars tuberalis
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➢ Secretes the following major hormones
✓Thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)- act on thyroid gland
✓Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)- act on adrenal
gland
✓Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)- stimulates primary
ovarian follicles in an ovary
✓Lutenizing hormone (LH) – stimulates ovulation
✓Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) – causes the
synthesis of melanin
✓Growth hormone and prolactin (lactogenic) hormone-
stimulates growth and milk production
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Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
• has three parts
▪ pars nervosa
▪ infundibular stalk
▪ median eminence
• stores two hormones
• antiduretic hormone (ADH)- accelerates reabsorption of water from
urine in the kidneys and it controls water balance in the body
• oxytocin – stimulates contraction of smooth muscles of the pregnant
uterus
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Cells of the pituitary gland
• Somatotropic cells – secrete growth hormone
• Lactotropic cells – secrete prolactin
• Thyrotrophic cells- secrete thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Corticotropic cells- secrete adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) and
melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
• Gonadotropic cells- secrete follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
and lutenizing hormone (LH)
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Thyroid gland
Butter fly shaped gland located in the anterior neck (anterior and
lateral surface of trachea below larynx
It’s the largest pure endocrine gland, composed of two lobes
connected by an isthmus
b/n the follicles are epithelial cells called para follicular cells that
produce a hormone called calcitonin
secretes hormones in response to stimulation by TSH from the
pituitary gland
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Secretes thyroxine (T4) and triiodo thyronine (T3) , these
hormones contain the element iodine, which is essential to the
function of hormone
➢ Their main function is increasing the basal metabolic rate (the rate
at which the body uses oxygen to transform nutrients in to energy)
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Parathyroid gland
• Four small glands that lie on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
• Composed of two types of cells; chief cells and oxyphil cells
Release PTH when blood calcium levels drop too low.
Tell bones to release stored calcium into the blood.
Help the kidneys save calcium and turn vitamin D into its active form
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Adrenal or suprarenal gland
the paired adrenal or supra renal glands are pyramidal or crescent
shaped organs , lie on the superior surface of the kidneys
consists of two divisions (portions)
adrenal cortex and Adrenal medulla
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pineal gland (pineal body )
is a small, pine cone shaped structure on the roof of the
diencephalons
composed of cells called pinealocytes which secrete melatonin
(night ) and serotonin (day)
it also influences reproductive system and gonadal activities
it’s activity in fluenced by daily cycle of light and dark
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Hypothalamus
it is the neuroendocrine gland
actual production of the ADH(Supra-optic nucleus) and
oxytocin( Paraventricular nucleus).
it controls the release of ADH and oxytocin in to the blood
it also secretes many hormone-like substances that control body
functions such as body temperature , appetite , thirst etc..
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The pancreas
Position in the upper abdomen, just under the stomach
The major part of the pancreas, called the exocrine pancreas functions
as an exocrine gland, secreting digestive enzymes in to GIT
The endocrine cells of the pancreas are contained in spherical bodies
called pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans
The main cell types in the islets are alpha and beta cells
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The gonads
Gonads are organs that produce gametes
sperm in males
oocytes in female
female sex glands
The two ovaries are the women’s sex glands , located in the
pelvic cavity
Each ovary contains two different structures
1. ovarian follicles – secrete estrogen
2. corpus luteum- chiefly secretes progesterone and some
estrogen
estrogens maintain the reproductive organs and secondary sex
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Progestrone signals the uterus to prepare for pregnancy
These female sex hormones (with FSH and LH )
regulate menstrual cycle
regulate oogenesis
maintain pregnancy
prepare mammary glands for lactation
establish and maintain feminine secondary sex characterstics (e.g.
breast and wide pelvis
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Male sex glands
the male gonads (testes) are oval glands that lie in scrotum, produce
sperm and also secrete number of male sex hormones or androgens
the most important androgen is testestrone
the interstitial cells in the testis secrete testosterone
testosterone gives the following functions
masculinizes the individual
maintain the reproductive organs and accessory organs
stimulates secondary sex characterstics of males
promote the formation of sperm
stimulates descent of testes before birth
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Thymus
located in the lower neck and anterior thorax (mediastinum)
In infants it may extend up to lower edge of thyroid gland as age
increases it will atrophy
Secretes a hormone called thymosin and thymopoietin which
causes T lymphocytes to gain immunocompetence (important for
the development and functioning of the bodys immune system)
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