Module-2

Pumps and actuators

Pumps: Classification of pumps, pumping theory of positive displacement pumps, construction and working of
Gear pumps, Vane pumps, Piston pumps, fixed and variable displacement pumps, Pump performance
characteristics, pump selection factors,

Actuators: Classification cylinder and hydraulic motors, Hydraulic cylinders, single and double acting cylinder,
cushioning, special types of cylinders, Construction and working of rotary actuators such as gear, vane, piston
motors, and Hydraulic Motor. Symbolic representation of hydraulic actuators (cylinders and motors).

Accumulators: Types, selection/ applications of accumulators

PUMPS
A pump, which is the heart of hydraulic system, converts mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy. The mechanical energy is delivered to the pump using a prime mover such as an
electric motor. Due to the mechanical action, the pump creates a partial vaccum at its inlet.
This permits atmospheric pressure to force the fluid through the inlet line and into the pump.
The pump then pushes the fluid into the hydraulic system.

CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS:
Pumps are broadly classified into two types
1) Dynamic (non-positive displacement) pumps
2) Positive displacement pumps
1) Dynamic (non-positive displacement) pumps: This type is generally used for low- pressure,
high-volume flow applications. Because they are not capable of withstanding high pressures,
they are of little use in the fluid power field. Normally their maximum pressure capacity is
limited to 250-300psi. This type of pump is primarily used for transporting fluids from one
location to another. The two most common types of dynamic pumps are the centrifugal and
axial flow propeller pumps.
2) Positive displacement pumps: This type is universally used for fluid power systems. As the
name implies, a positive displacement pump ejects a fixed amount of fluid into the hydraulic
system per revolution of pump shaft rotation. Such a pump is capable of overcoming the
pressure resulting from the mechanical loads on the system as well as the resistance to flow
due to friction.
Positive displacement pumps are further classified into:
i) Fixed displacement pumps: It is the one in which the amount of fluid ejected per revolution
(displacement) cannot be varied.
ii) Variable displacement pumps: In this type of pumps, the displacement can be varied by
changing the physical relationships of various pump elements. This change in pump
displacement produces a change in pump flow output even though pump speed remains
constant.
The advantages of positive displacement pumps over non-positive displacement pumps are
as follows:
1. They can operate at very high pressures of up to 800 bar (used for lifting oils from very
deep oil wells).
2. They can achieve a high volumetric efficiency of up to 98%.
3. They are highly efficient and almost constant throughout the designed pressure range.
4. They are a compact unit, having a high power-to-weight ratio.
5. They can obtain a smooth and precisely controlled motion.
6. By proper application and control, they produce only the amount of flow required to move
the load at the desired velocity.
7. They have a great flexibility of performance. They can be made to operate over a wide
range of pressures and speeds.
PUMPING THEORY OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS:
Pumps operate on the principle whereby a partial vaccum is created at the pump inlet due to
the internal operation of the pump. This allows atmospheric pressure to push the fluid out of
oil tank (reservoir) and into the pump intake. The pump then mechanically pushes the fluid
out the discharge line. This action can be best described by reference to a simple piston pump
shown in Fig.

1. As the piston moves to the left, a partial vacuum is created in the pump chamber that holds
the outlet valve in place against its seat and induces flow from the reservoir that is at a higher
(atmospheric) pressure. As this flow is produced, the inlet valve is temporarily displaced by
the force of fluid, permitting the flow into the pump chamber (suction stroke).
2. When the piston moves to the right, the resistance at the valves causes an immediate
increase in the pressure that forces the inlet valve against its seat and opens the outlet valve
thereby permitting the fluid to flow into the system. If the outlet port opens directly to the
atmosphere, the only pressure developed is the one required to open the outlet valve
(delivery stroke).
CLASSIFICATION OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS:
1. Gear Pumps
 External Gear pump

 Internal Gear pump

2. Vane Pumps
 Balanced vane pump

 Unbalanced vane pump

3. Piston Pumps
 Axial type

 Radial type

Terminologies associated with positive Displacement Pump

Volumetric Displacement (VD): Volumetric or theoretical volumetric displacement of a
positive displacement pump is the volume of liquid pumped in one revolution. It is equal to
the volume of one pumping chamber multiplied by number of chambers that pass the outlet
in one revolution. Volumetric displacement is expressed in cubic mts per revolution. In the
case of single cylinder pump the number of chamber is one.
VD = (m3/rev)

Flow capacity or discharge (Theoretical flow rate): Flow capacity or discharge of a pump is
the volume of oil discharged per unit time denoted by Q and expressed in cm3/min.

Volumetric Efficiency: Volumetric Efficiency of a pump is the ratio of actual discharge to the
theoretical discharge expressed in percentage.
Theoretically a pump delivers an amount of fluid equal to its theoretical volumetric
displacement during each cycle of revolution. In reality the actual displacement is reduced
because of internal leakage or slippage. As the pressure increases, leakage back into the inlet
also increases, causing a decrease in discharge.
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
ηvol= Actual discharge / theoretical discharge = 𝑋100
𝑄𝑡ℎ
Pump rating: A pump is generally rated by its maximum pressure p and the output flow
Qact, at a given drive speed.

Hydraulic power: Hydraulic power of a hydraulic system is the product of pressure of the
fluid in newtons per square meters N/m2 discharge in cubic meter per second (m3/sec).
i.e., Hydraulic power = (p x Q)
= Watts
If the discharge Q is in cubic meter per minute, then
Hydraulic
𝑄 power = ( ∗ 𝑝)Watts
60

Pin N/m2 or Pascal.

Pumping cycle: Movement of the pumping element from a small volume to a large volume
and back to small volume constitute a pumping cycle.

GEAR PUMPS:
Gear pumps are less expensive but limited to low pressures. It is noisy in operation than either vane
or piston pumps. Gear pumps are invariably of fixed displacement type, which means that the
amount of fluid displaced for each revolution of the drive shaft is theoretically constant.
EXTERNAL GEAR PUMPS:

External gear pumps are the most popular hydraulic pumps in low-pressure ranges due to
their long operating life, high efficiency and low cost. They are generally used in a simple
machine. The external gear pump consists of a pump housing in which a pair of precisely
machined meshing gears runs with minimal radial and axial clearance. One of the gears, called
a driver, is driven by a prime mover. The driver drives another gear called a follower. As the
teeth of the two gears separate, the fluid from the pump inlet gets trapped between the
rotating gear cavities and pump housing. The trapped fluid is then carried around the
periphery of the pump casing and delivered to outlet port. The teeth of precisely meshed
gears provide almost a perfect seal between the pump inlet and the pump outlet.

Advantages:
 High speed.
 High pressure.
 Volumetric efficiency is high
 It is compact and light in weight
Disadvantages:
 The liquid to be pumped must be clean, otherwise it will damage the pump.
 Variable speed drives are required to change the delivery.
 If they run dry, parts can be damaged because the fluid to be pumped is used as
lubricant.
INTERNAL GEAR PUMPS:

Internal Gear Pumps consist of two gears: An external gear and an internal gear. The crescent
placed in between these acts as a seal between the suction and discharge. When a pump
operates, the internal gear drives the external gear and both gears rotate in the same
direction. The fluid fills the cavities formed by the rotating teeth and the stationary crescent.
Both the gears transport the fluid through the pump. The crescent seals the low-pressure
pump inlet from the high-pressure pump outlet. These pumps have a higher pressure
capability than external gear pumps.

Advantages:
 Only two moving parts.
 Excellent for high-viscosity liquids.
 Operates well in either direction.
 Single adjustable end clearance.

Disadvantages:
 Usually requires moderate speeds.
 Medium pressure limitations.
 Overhung load on shaft bearing.
 Lobe Pump
ssss

• Operates in a fashion similar to that of external gear pump.

• Both blades are driven externally (one directly by the source of power & other through
timing gears).

• Physically blades doesn’t come in contact with each other.

• Quieter than other types of gear pumps.

• Greater amount of pulsation in pump output.

• Used for pumping gas, air, liquid with low pressures with higher flow rate.

Advantages

• It can handle solids, slurries, pastes and many liquid

• No metal-to-metal contact

• Very quiet in operation

 Disadvantages

• Viscosity dependent pressure rating

• Decrease in pump efficiency with increase in fluid viscosity

• Overall volumetric & mechanical efficiency is low

VANE PUMPS OR VANE TYPE PUMPS (SLIDING VANE PUMPS)

The vane pumps are also rotary pumps and operates on the principle of increasing and
decreasing volume. Increase in volume of the cavity produces vacuum which draws the
fluid into the chamber and fill up the space and the decrease in volume causes the fluid
to be forced out of the chamber under pressure. In this case the vanes are allowed to
track along a ring generally called can ring.

Classification of vane pumps

Vane pumps are broadly classified into four types. They are:
a. Fixed displacement, unbalanced type.
b. Fixed displacement, balanced type.
c. Variable displacement, unbalanced type.
d. Variable displacement balanced type.

Principle of working The rotor whose axis is positioned eccentric to the circular cam ring
rotates inside it. The vanes which are free to slide radially inside their slots provided in the
rotor move outward due to centrifugal force. These vanes make contact with the inner surface
of the camring and a positive seal is maintained between the vanes and the cam ring.
Fixed displacement vane pumps
The mathematical formula for the theoretical volumetric displacement of a vane pump is
VD =π/ 2 (dc + dr) w e
VD=Ke
K = 2(d, + dr) w
Where K is a vane pump constant for a given vane pump.
It can be observed from the above relation that the theoretical volumetric displacement VD
is a function of diameter of cam ring and rotor, width of the vane and the eccentricity. For a
given size of pump dc, dr, and w are fixed. That is they are all constants. Then any variations
in VD is due to variation in e. Eccentricity e varies from zero. i.e. when the center of rotations
of both the rotor and cam ring coincide and e is maximum when the rotor touches the inner
surface of the ring.
i.e., e varies from o to emax. and hence the volume displacement of the pump.
If it is not possible to vary the eccentricity `e' then the volume displacement of such
pump remains constant or fixed and hence such pumps are called fixed displacement pumps.
If the value of e can be changed by some simple external mechanism, then the volume
displacement also changes or varies. Such pumps are called variable displacement pumps.
Variable displacement in vane pumps can be achieved by changing the geometric
position of the Cam ring relative to the rotor center which changes the eccentricity e and
hence the displacement. Fig. shows one of the methods adopted to achieve variable
displacement in vane pump. The main parts of such a pump are, (a) Cam ring, (b) Rotor, (c)
Vanes, (d) Screw for position adjustment of Cam Ring
 By operating the screw the geometrical position of the cam ring with the centre of
rotation of the rotor can be varied.
Fig. shows the three different positions of cam ring with respect to the centre of
rotation of rotor. When e is +ve i.e., e = +emax then the discharge Q is maximum and when e
= 0, no discharge and e is -ve i.e., e = emax then discharge is maximum and the flow is reverse.

As mentioned earlier variation of e influences the theoretical volumetric displacement Vo of

the vane pump. Fig. shows the displacement eccentricity characteristics of a variable
displacement pump, where VD = 0 for e = 0 and VD is maximum when e is max that is equal
𝑑𝑟−𝑑𝑐
to ( ).
2

Unbalanced vane pump: A vane pump during its operation experiences two different
pressures. A low pressure at the inlet side chamber and high pressure at outlet side chamber.
This creates an undesirable side loading on the rotor shaft resulting in damage to the intricate
parts of the pump. The unbalanced forces or loading reduces the service life of the pump.
Balanced vane pump: The problem of unbalanced loading on shaft in vane pump can be
overcome by replacing the circular can ring with an elliptical can ring as shown in Fig.

Cam ring, assembly of cam ring and basic concept of working of balanced vane pump are
shown in Fig.
In this case rotor is concentrically placed with the elliptical cam ring. This creates two inlet
and two outlet chambers such that the two high pressure quadrants oppose each other and
the two inlet chambers are directly opposite to each other. Thus the forces acting on the shaft
are fully balanced and side load or unbalancing is completely eliminated.

Pressure compensated vane pump.

In certain hydraulic system it is desired that the pump should stop pumping when a set or
pre-determined pressure is reached.
This is possible by using a pressure compensated vane pump. In this case, the system pressure
acts directly on the cam ring on the right side as shown in Fig.
These forces the cam ring against the compensatory spring loaded piston on the left of the
cam ring. When the discharge pressure of the pump is large enough, it overcomes the spring
forcers and moves the cam ring to the left. This results in reduction in eccentricity and this
reduction is maximum, when the discharge pressure is zero.
As the discharge pressure continues to increase, zero eccentricity is finally achieved and pump
flow becomes zero.
Such a pump has its own protection against excessive pressure build-up. Fig shows the
pressure vs flow characteristics of a pressure compensated vane pump.

PISTON PUMPS
A piston pump works on the principle that a reciprocating piston can draw in fluid, when it
retracts in a cylinder bore and discharge it when it extends. The basic question is how to
mechanize a series of reciprocating pistons. There are two basic type of piston pumps. One is
the axial design, having pistons that are parallel to the axis of the cylinder block. Axial piston
pumps can be either of the bent axis configuration or of the swash plate design. The second
type of piston pump is the radial design, which has pistons arranged radially in a cylinder
block.
Axial Piston Pump (Bent-Axis Design)

Figure shows an axial piston pump (bent-axis type) that contains a cylinder block rotating with
the drive shaft. However, the centerline of the cylinder block is set at an offset angle relative
to the centerline of the drive shaft. The cylinder block contains a number of pistons arranged
along a circle. The piston rods are connected to the drive shaft flange by ball-and-socket
joints. The pistons are forced in and out of their bores as the distance between the drive shaft
flange and cylinder block changes. A universal link connects the block to the drive shaft to
provide alignment and positive drive.

The volumetric displacement of the pump varies with the offset angle θ as shown in Figure
No flow is produced when the cylinder block centerline is parallel to the drive shaft centerline.
θ can vary from 0° to a maximum of about 30°. Fixed displacement units are usually- provided
with 23° or 30° offset angles.
Variable displacement units are available with a yoke and some external control to change
the offset angle. One such design, which uses a stroking cylinder, is shown in Figure. Some
designs have controls that move the yoke over the center position to reverse the direction of
flow through the pump.

In-Line Piston Pump (Swash Plate Design)

Figure provides a photograph and sketch illustrating the swash plate design in-line piston
pump. In this type, the cylinder block and drive shaft are located on the same centerline. The
pistons are connected to a shoe plate which bears against an angled swash plate. As the
cylinder rotates, the pistons reciprocate because the piston shoes follow the angled surface
of the swash plate. The outlet and inlet ports are located in the valve plate so that the pistons
pass the inlet as they are being pulled out and pass the outlet as they are being forced back
in.
This type of pump can also be designed to have variable displacement capability. In such a
design, the swash plate is mounted in a movable yoke, as depicted in Figure. The swash plate
angle can be changed by pivoting the yoke on pintles. Positioning of the yoke can be
accomplished by manual operation, servo control, or a compensator control, as shown in
1
Figure. The maximum swash plate angle is limited to 17 2° by construction.

Radial Piston Pump

The operation and construction of a radial piston pump is illustrated in Figure. This design
consists of a pintle to direct fluid in and out of the cylinders, a cylinder barrel with pistons,
and a rotor containing a reaction ring. The pistons remain in constant contact with the
reaction ring due to centrifugal force and back pressure on the pistons. For pumping action,
the reaction ring is moved eccentrically with respect to the pintle or shaft axis. As the cylinder
barrel rotates: the pistons on one side travel outward. This draws in fluid as each cylinder
passes the suction ports of the pintle. When a piston passes the point of maximum
PUMP SELECTION FACTORS:
The main parameters affecting the selection of a particular type of pump are as follows:
1) Maximum operating pressure.
2) Maximum delivery.
3) Type of control.
4) Pump drive speed.
5) Type of fluid.
6) Pump contamination tolerance.
7) Pump noise.
8) Size and weight of a pump.
9) Pump efficiency.
10) Cost.
11) Availability and interchangeability.
12) Maintenance and Spares.

ACCUMULATORS:
An accumulator is simply a container to store potential energy of incompressible fluid and
on demand make the energy available to the system. The energy is stored against a dynamic
force, which comes from
a. Gravity
b. Mechanical spring
c. Compressed gases
Accumulators hold high pressure fluid for a long period without keeping the pump running. It
eliminates pressure ripples, provides for leakage compensation and act as a source of
hydraulic energy in case of power failure. Fig. shows the graphic symbol for an accumulator.
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS:

1) Weight loaded or gravity accumulator

2) Spring-loaded accumulator
3) Gas-loaded accumulator
a) Non-seperator type
b) Seperator type
i) Piston type
ii) Diaphragm type
iii) Bladder type
WEIGHT LOADED OR GRAVITY ACCUMULATOR:

It is a vertically mounted cylinder with a large weight. When the hydraulic fluid is pumped
into it, the weight is raised. The weight applies a force on the piston that generates a pressure
on the fluid side of piston. The advantage of this type of accumulator over other types is that
it applies a constant pressure on the fluid throughout its range of motion. The main
disadvantage is its extremely large size and heavy weight. This makes it unsuitable for mobile
application.
SPRING LOADED ACCUMULATOR: A spring-loaded accumulator stores energy in the form of a
compressed spring. A hydraulic fluid is pumped into the accumulator, causing the piston to move
up and compress the spring. The compressed spring then applies a force on the piston that exerts
a pressure on the hydraulic fluid. This type of accumulator delivers only a small volume of oil at
relatively low pressure.

Gas Loaded Accumulator

 It have been found to be more practical than weight- and spring –loaded types.
 The gas-loaded type operate in accordance with Boyle’s law of gases.
Gas loaded accumulators fall into two main categories.
1. Non-separator Type
2. Separator Type

Non-separator Type
A gas-loaded accumulator is popularly used in industries. Here the force is applied to the oil using
compressed air. A gas accumulator can be very large and is often used with water or high water-
based fluids using air as a gas charge.

Separator Type
1. Piston type
2. Diaphragm type
3. Bladder type
Piston type

It consists of a cylinder with a freely floating piston with proper seals. Its operation begins by
charging the gas chamber with a gas (nitrogen) under a pre-determined pressure. This causes
the free sliding piston to move down. Once the accumulator is pre-charged, a hydraulic fluid
can be pumped into the hydraulic fluid port. As the fluid enters the accumulator, it causes the
piston to slide up, thereby compressing the gas that increases its pressure and this pressure
is then applied to the hydraulic fluid through the piston.

Diaphragm type
In this type, the hydraulic fluid and nitrogen gas are separated by a synthetic rubber
diaphragm. The advantage of a diaphragm accumulator over a piston accumulator is that it
has no sliding surface that requires lubrication and can therefore be used with fluids having
poor lubricating qualities. It is less sensitive to contamination due to lack of any close-fitting
components.
Bladder type

Here the gas and the hydraulic fluid are separated by a synthetic rubber bladder. The bladder
is filled with nitrogen until the designed pre-charge pressure is achieved. The hydraulic fluid
is then pumped into the accumulator, thereby compressing the gas and increasing the
pressure in the accumulator.

Selection Procedure
1. Flow rate
2. External forces
3. Fluid type
4. Safety
5. Sizing information
6. Shock suppression
7. Temperature effect
8. Failure modes
9. Response time
Applications of Accumulators
1. Die casting machinery
2. Plastic machinery
3. Steel industry
4. Machine tools
5. Cranes vehicles
6. Energy power plants
7. Chemical industry
8. Construction mobile machinery
9. Automotive applications
10. Agriculture machinery

INTENSIFIERS (Hydraulic pressure boosters)

 A pressure intensifier is used to increase the pressure in a hydraulic system to a valve
above the pump discharge pressure.
 It accepts a high volume flow at relatively low pump pressure and converts a portion
of this flow to high pressure.
 It always work powered by a pump, which is operating at higher output pressure.
 It is commonly used in hydraulic power packs in the work holding industry for use with
CNC machines.

It consists of a fixed cylinder and a sliding ram as shown in Fig along with its graphic symbol.
The sliding ram is a plunger with different diameters and lengths suitable with the cylinder
within which it is reciprocating. Associated with this are valves connected to the circuit (not
shown in the Fig.).
Working: Low pressure enters the fixed cylinder on the larger diameter of the plunger and a
force.
TYPES OF INTENSIFIERS
1. Single acting intensifier: Supplies high pressure liquid during one stroke only and hence
intermittent
2. Double acting intensifier: Supplies high pressure oil continuously.
Air operated hydraulic intensifier are also available and are used commonly for clamping,
holding, punching, presses, jacks, torque wrenches and more.
Advantages
a. Higher performance and longer life on account of a lower operating pressure.
b. More compact system.
c. Greater safety due to lower pressure in general.
d. Ease and accuracy of control
e. Multiplication of force.
f. Can be easily started, stopped, speeded up and slow clown with the help of simple lever
operation provided in the circuit.
Applications
Hydraulic work holding, pressure die casting, static and impulse testing equipment. hydraulic
power packs riveting and so on.

PRESSURE SWITCHES
A pressure switch is an instrument that automatically senses a change in pressure and opens
or closes an electrical switching element, when a predetermined pressure point is reached. A
pressure-sensing element is that part of a pressure switch that moves due to the change in
pressure
There are two types of switching elements:
1. Normally open
2. Normally closed.
A normally open switching element is one in which the current can flow through the switching
element only when it is actuated. The plunger pin is held down by a snap action leaf spring
and force must be applied to the plunger pin to close the circuit. This is done by an electrical
coil which generates an electromagnetic field, when current flows through it. Ina normally
closed switch, current flows through the switching element until the element is actuated, at
which point it opens and breaks the current flow.
Pressure switches
A pressure switch is a form of switch that closes and opens an electrical contact when a set
pressure of the input fluid has been reached. The pressure switch may be designed for either
rise in pressure or fall in pressure.
Construction: Fig. shows the cross section of a typical pressure switch. This consists of a
plunger which can move upward when the pressure of the fluid it against a compressed
spring, compressed with the help of a adjustable nut provided on the top of the spring. By
turning the nut the spring tension is varied which varies the set pressure.
A limit switch closes or opens an electric circuit depending on the plunger position, i.e.,
whether the plunger is making contact with the limit switch or not.

Working: When the system pressure reaches the set pressure the plunger moves up against
the spring, comes in contact with the limit switch and closes the limit switch. This in tam
operates the pressure reducing valve which limits the pressure of fluid in the system. When
the system pressure drops below the set pressure, the plunger drops, allowing the limit switch
to open, that by operating the valve to its normal position. Varieties of pressure switches are
available separately for pneumatic and hydraulic and selection of the same depends on the
purpose in the system.
Application: One of the common application is in
1. Gas geyser which closes the circuit and opens the gas valve when the tap is opened for hot
water. Closing of the circuit generator spark which light the gas coming out of the burner.
When the tap is closed, the gas valves closes and thus the supply of gas to the burner ceases.
(You might have experienced that when the tap is closed there is a tapping sound which is the
sound of the movement of the pressure switch).
2. Automatic switching ON and OFF water to overhead tank based on the level of water in the
overhead tank.
3. Switching of a gas or air compressor driven by electricity when a set pressure is achieved
by the reservoir.
4. In Cockpit, to raise an alarm when the pressure falls much below the set pressure. Many
such application are made use of using pressure switches.
TEMPERATURE SWITCH
In many hydraulic installations heat will be generated when in use. It is important to regulate
the temperature of a hydraulic system by using thermostats or temperature switches.
A temperature switch is an instrument that automatically senses a change in temperature and
opens or closes an electrical switching element when a predetermined temperature level is
reached. Different thermostats and temperature switches in its range, electrical version as
well as mechanical thermostatic valves are available.
The temperature switch is provided with an adjustment screw in order to change the
actuation point In order to facilitate its mounting on the hydraulic system whose temperature
is to be measured, the bottom end of the switch is provided with threads. Temperature
switches can also be wired either normally open or normally closed.
LEVEL SENSORS
A level sensor is a device for determining the level or amount of fluids, liquids or other
substances that flow in an open or closed system. There are two types of level measurements,
namely, continuous and point level measurements.
Types of Liquid Level Sensors
1. Float Sensor. 2. Capacitance Sensor. 3. Conductivity Probes. 4. Overhead Tank Water
Level Indicator. 5. Ultrasonic Sensor.
 1. Float Sensor
A float switch is a type of level sensor, a device used to detect the level of liquid within a tank.
The switch may be used to control a pump, as an indicator, an alarm, or to control other
devices. One type of float switch uses a mercury switch inside a hinged float. The purpose of
a float switch is to open or close a circuit as the level of a liquid rises or falls. Most float
switches are "normally closed," meaning the two wires coming from the top of the switch
complete a circuit when the float is at its low point, resting on its bottom clip.
2. Capacitance Sensor A capacitive sensor converts a change in position, or properties of
dielectric material into an electrical signal. These properties of capacitor are used to measure
the liquid level in storage tanks.
Noncontact capacitive sensors work by measuring changes in an electrical property called
capacitance. Capacitance describes how two conductive objects with a space between them
respond to a voltage difference applied to them. If the polarity of the voltage is reversed, the
charges will also reverse.
Applications
•Home Appliances: refrigerators, coffee machines, humidifiers
• Automotive: fuel level, washer fluid, coolant level
• Medical: drug pens, insulin pumps, droplet.
Conductivity Probes Liquid Level Sensor
Maintaining safe operating conditions in a process vessel is critical to the safety of employees
and the integrity of consumer products.
In most of the situations Conventional metal and polymeric float switches are able to
complete the task, but in more corrosive environments they are at a disadvantage in
industries such as petrochemical, food, and pharmaceutical use corrosive liquids that can
compromise the utility of conventional liquid level devices. In such conditions conductivity
sensors may be an ideal solution.
How Ultrasonic Level Sensing Works
Ultrasonic liquid level sensors operate by emitting pulses of ultrasonic sound. These sound
waves travel toward the liquid medium being measured before bouncing back and returning
to the transducer which produced them. The distance between the transducer and the
surface of the liquid medium can then be calculated based on the tune elapsed between
emission and return and the speed of sound. This distance is subtracted from total tank or
vessel depth, and thus liquid levels are accurately calculated.
Common Applications of Liquid Level Sensors
Since ultrasonic sensors are non-contact type unlike optical or float switches,
a. Are ideal for difficult or corrosive liquids such as acids, wastewater, and others.
b. Continuous level measurement.
In addition to liquid level sensing, other common applications of ultrasonic sensors include
Loop control
 Robotic sensing
 Thread or wire break detection
 Vehicle detection for automotive assembly
 Irregular parts detection

Actuators
 Hydraulic systems are used to control and transmit power.
 An actuator is used to convert the energy of fluid back into the mechanical power.
 The amount of output power developed depends upon the flow rate, the pressure
drop across the actuator and its overall efficiency.
Thus, hydraulic actuators are devices used to convert pressure energy of the fluid into
mechanical energy.
Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic actuators are classified as follows:
1. Linear actuator: For linear actuation (hydraulic cylinders).
2. Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (hydraulic motor).

Linear Actuators
Linear actuators are those which have linear motion. Hydraulic linear actuators are also called
Hydraulic cylinders.
Construction: Basically, a cylinder consist of a pipe, piston, end covers and ports or opening
on the end covers for the inlet and out let oil. Fig shows the basic parts of a cylinder.

Motion of Actuators
Extension:
Movement of the piston from the cap or head end to the rod end of the cylinder is called
extension. Fig shows the action of extension and extended position of a hydraulic cylinder.

Retraction: Movement of the piston from rod end to the cap or head end of the cylinder is
called retraction. Fig shows the concept of retraction and retracted position of the hydraulic
cylinder.

Classification of cylinder
a) Single acting cylinder.
b) Double acting cylinder

Single acting cylinder.

A cylinder where in the extension is due to high pressure oil or high pressure oil (HPO) acts
only on the cap end side of the piston is called single acting cylinder.
Single acting cylinders are featured by a single port at the cap end side of the cylinder.
In this case retraction of the cylinder is either due to gravity or due to spring provided on the
rod end side of the cylinder
Gravity retracted cylinder can be placed in any position except horizontal whereas spring
retracted cylinder can be placed in any position or orientation. One of the disadvantages of
spring retracted cylinders are, they occupy additional space in the cylinder resulting in
increase in length of the cylinder for a given output.

Double acting cylinder

Cylinders where in both extension and retraction are due to high pressure oil (HPO) are called
Double acting cylinder. High pressure oil acts on both the surfaces of the piston as shown in
Fig
The cylinder is featured by two ports for entry and exit of high and low pressure oil (LP0)
during extension and retraction. This types of cylinder is most commonly used and finds its
application in industrial hydraulics.
Double acting cylinder can be of two types.
i. Differential cylinder
ii. Non-differential cylinder
Differential cylinder
Force acting on a surface due to fluid pressure is the product of the pressure and the effective
area on which the fluid pressure is acting.

F=PXA
Effective area on head end
𝜋𝐷2
𝐴𝑝 =
4
Forces on head end due to fluid pressure
𝜋D2
𝐹𝑝 = 𝑃
4
D is Diameter of piston
Similarly effective area on rod end
𝜋 2 2
𝐴ℎ = (D – d )
2
D is diameter of piston rod
Forces on rod End of Piston due to fluid pressure P
𝜋 2 2
𝐹𝑟 = 𝑃𝑋 (D – d )
2
Non-Differential cylinder
Non-differential cylinder also called through-rod cylinder is the one where exists same force
on either side of the piston surface due to the same fluid pressure.
This can be achieved by providing piston rods of the same diameter on either sides of the
piston surfaces. Fig shows the concept of non-differential double acting cylinder.

Working of double acting cylinder

The piston is at the end of retraction. The rod end side contains low pressure oil (LPO)
Extension: High pressure oil (HPO) enters the port A and starts extending the cylinder and at
the same time LPO exit from the rod end cylinder through the port B. This continuous till the
end of extension.

Retraction: - LPO is present to the left of head end. Now HPO enter the rod end side of the
cylinder through port B and retracts the cylinder. At the same time LPO exit through the port
A and this continues till end of retraction.

Forces on a Piston and its speed

The forces excreted on a piston & its speed depends on the pressure & discharge of oil from
hydraulic pump
Special type of hydraulic cylinders

Telescopic cylinder

Telescopic cylinder is another type of cylinder. It consists of a series of nested tubular

segments called Sleeves. These sleeves work together and provide a longer working stroke or
extension than possible with a standard cylinders. Upto four to five sleeves can be used. The
maximum force that can be exerted depends on the diameter of the smallest sleeve of the
cylinder. Fig. illustrates the basic principle of a telescopic cylinder in its fully extended and
retracted position.

Tandem cylinder

Higher forces can be achieved for a given pressure of oil and cylinder bore size by mounting
two cylinders in series or in line with a common piston rod as shown in Fig. Such an
arrangement is called Tandem cylinder.
Cushioning Cylinder

When the cylinder piston is actuated, the fluid enters the cylinder port and flows through the
little check valve so that the entire piston area can be utilized to produce force and motion.
For the prevention of shock due to stopping loads at the end of the piston stroke, cushion
devices are used. Cushions may be applied at either end or both ends. They operate on the
principle that as the cylinder piston approaches the end of stroke, an exhaust fluid is forced
to go through an adjustable needle valve that is set to control the escaping fluid at a given
rate. This allows the deceleration characteristics to be adjusted for different loads.

Rodless Cylinder

This cylinder consit of Magnetic piston which control by fluid. The magnetic follower has
mounted above the device and is activated by magnetic power. When fluid is travel through
port A piston will move from left to right and Magnetic folower also follow the piston.
Impact Cylinder

The phenomenon of the tool rebound from the object processed, that can be noticed
particularly in the case of impact marking, has a negative influence on the quality of the
processing of moving objects, which is a result of the blur effect caused by the shift of the
object processed at the time of its retraction.

Cylinder Mountings:
The main function of a cylinder mounting is to provide a means of anchoring or securing the
cylinder. The method of mounting can affect the maximum rating or maximum thrust loading
of the cylinder.
There are many ways to mount the cylinder. Choice of mount may also depends on the
construction of the cylinder. For example the rod construction may favour tie-rod mounting
as the most favourable choice or the construction may embody specific mounts-eg. integral
centreline mounts.
Mounts can be classified into three basic types.
a. Rigid mounts which absorb the force on the cylinder centreline
b. Rigid mounts which absorb the force on a plane parallel to, but removed from the cylinder
centreline
c. Pivot mounts
Rigid mounts are generally preferred where the forces to be absorbed are heavy. They also
usually provide the most rigid form of mounting with a minimum of complication for cylinders
of tie rod construction, and is particularly attractive where mounting space is limited. An
additional plate may however be added for flange mounting for ease of alignment.
The type of mounting is determined by the manner in which the cylinder is to be fitted to a
machine or fixture. The cylinder can be designed with a permanent type of mounting if it is
not altered or shifted any time from its mounted position. In case of cylinders being altered
or shifted from its position at a later date and in such cases adjustable types of mounting with
suitable accessories on the modular construction principle.
The basic types of cylinder mountings are
a. Foot Mounting
b. Flange Mounting
c. Swivel Mounting
Cylinder mountings may be
a. Rod end cylinder mounting
b. Cylinder body mounting
Rod end mountings may be
a. Plain b. Threaded c. Flange d. Clevis
Cylinder body mountings may be
a. Plain mounting b. Foot mounting c. Flange mounting d. Trillion mounting e. Clevis
mounting f. Tongue or bracket mounting.

Foot Mounting
Foot mounting is used where cylinder is to be mounted on to the surface parallel to the axis
of the cylinder. These types of mountings are rigid, but mounting bolts are subjected
compound stresses. This is a common and offer the most convenient method of mounting.

Flange Mounting
Flange mounting is the most rigid and strongest method of mounting, since mounting bolts
are subjected to only tensile stress, provided no misalignment of rod is present or possible
during operation Fig.
Trunion mounting

Trunion mounting, absorbs force on cylinder centreline - Swivel flange mounting bolts are
under the influence of compound stress (tension and shear). Swivel flange mounting may be
centre or blind end as shown in Fig.

Clevis mounting

This is similar to trunion but allows for some misalignment of the rod while absorbing force
on cylinder centre line. Clevis mounting may be piston mounting or blind end mounting.
Graphical Symbols of different linear Actuators
Hydraulic Motor
Gear motors consists of a pair of matching gears enclosed in a housing and driven by fluid
pressure. One of the gears is connected to an output shaft, and the other is an idler. Gear
motors are unbalanced motors. The hydraulic imbalance in a gear motor is due to unmeshing
of gear teeth. As the gear teeth unmesh, all the teeth shifted to system pressure are
hydraulically balanced except one side of one tooth on one gear. This is the point where the
torque is developed. Larger the gear tooth area or higher the pressure, more will be the
torque developed. Fluid pressure forces the gear to rotate. There are two types of gear
motors, based on the method of meshing of the gears.

a) External gear motor.

b) Internal gear motor.

External Gear Motor

External gear motor consists of a pair of gears of the same size and tooth form meshing
externally as shown in Fig. The gears are enclosed in housing and are driven by oil pressure.
One of the gears will be connected an output shaft and other idler.
Working: High pressure oil enters on one side of the casing and unmesh the gears and forces
to rotate. The oil under high pressure follows the path of least resistance, which is around the
periphery of the inner side of the housing and comes out at low pressure through the outlet
provided on the opposite side of the inlet.
The torque developed is a function of hydraulic imbalance of only one tooth of one gear at a
time; the other gear and teeth are hydraulically balanced.
Internal Gear Motor

Working: High pressure oil enters the motor through the inlet port as shown in Fig. Since the
inner gear has one tooth less than the outer gear, a pocket s formed between the two inner
teeth and an outer Socket A. The kidney shaped inlet port is so designed such that once the
pocket is full, the fluid flow is shut off with the tip of the inner gear providing a seal as shown
in Fig. As the inner and outer gears rotate in pair another pocket is formed and the previous
pocket has moved around and the opposite kidney shaped outlet port steadily draining the
oil in the pocket. This continues and continuous rotation is generated. Reversing the flow
reverses the direction of rotation of the motor.

Vane Motor
Working: High pressure oil enters the motor through the inlet port, acts on the small
projected area of the vane, develops force and hence torque. This torque rotates the rotor.
As the rotor rotates because of the eccentricity, the vanes slides out resulting in more surface
area, more force and hence more torque. Fig. illustrates the concept of torque development
and working of a vane motor.

Piston Motor

In-line axial piston motors It has been shown earlier that displacement of a piston motor is a
function of the offset angle for a given motor. If it is possible to vary the offset angle by some
means than such motors are called variable displacement motors. In variable displacement
motor the swash plate is mounted on a swinging yoke. The angle can be varied by various
means such as a lever, hand wheel or a servo control. Fig. shows one of the methods of varying
the swash plate angle O. If the offset angle is increased the displacement and hence the
torque capacity is increased but the speed of the drive shaft decreases. Conversely reducing
the angle reduces the torque capability but increases drive shaft speed. Minimum angle stops
are usually provided so that torque and speed stay within operating limits. Fig. shows the
concept of swash plate angle variation in a variable displacement in-line axial piston motor.
Textbooks
1) Anthony Esposito, “Fluid Power with applications”, Pearson edition, 2000.
2) Majumdar S.R., “Oil Hydraulics”, Tala McGRaw HllL, 2002.
3) Majumdar S.R., “Pneumatic systems ¬ Principles and Maintenance”, Tata McGraw¬Hill, New
Delhi, 2005
Reference books
1) Industrial Hydraulics, Pippenger Hicks, McGraw Hill, Ne
2) John Pippenger, Tyler Hicks, “Industrial Hydraulics”, McGraw Hill International Edition, 1980.
3) Andrew Par, Hydraulics and pneumatics, Jaico Publishing House, 2005.
4) FESTO, Fundamentals of Pneumatics, Vol I, II and III.
5) Herbert E. Merritt, “Hydraulic Control Systems”, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
6) Thomson, Introduction to Fluid power, Prentcie HaIl, 2004
7) John Watton, “Fundamentals of fluid power control”, Cambridge University press, 2012.