Republic of the Philippines
BOHOL ISLAND STATE UNIVERSITY
[Address, Zip Code, Bohol, Philippines]
Office of the ___________________________
Balance I Integrity I Stewardship I Uprightness
Learning Module 4: The Eastern and Western Concepts of Self
Intended Learning Outcomes:
• Select a concept of Self based on the different viewpoints of the West;
• Evaluate the concepts of Self according to the four great systems of the Eastern Concept;
• Differentiate the concept of Self according to Western thought against Eastern/ Oriental
perspectives through role play.
I. The Western Concepts of Self
✓ This construction of an autonomous, unitary, and stable self in the West is
grounded in a contrasting assumption that non-western (such as eastern) people
do not possess an individuated self that is differentiated from the “other.”
It is in this sense that the Western concept of self is holistically defined in terms of the following aspects:
1. Western Self as Analytic
➔ The Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive with emphasis on the causal
links (part-to-whole relationships).
➔ The whole is understood when differentiated into parts. One must categorize
and make distinctions to pursue cause. They are known to have deductive
reasoning.
2. Western Self as Monotheistic
➔ The belief in one Supreme Being coexisting with the universe condenses the
supernatural and human capabilities into bipolarity of both qualities of existence
(e.g.; beautiful/ugly; kind/cruel; etc.) and categories of identity or experience
(e.g., God/Satan; body/soul; etc.)
3. Western Self as Individualistic
➔ Western individualism exhibits the coexistence of favorable and unfavorable
conditions inherent in personal freedom. Although the right to individual
freedom provides opportunities for self-fulfillment, it also increases the
likelihood of experiencing alienation and frustration.
4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic
➔ The Western way of thinking is focused on material “things” and favors a
rational-empirical approach over magical and superstitious explanations of
immaterial “things”.
II. The Eastern Concepts of Self
In the East, philosophy and religion are twisted together. Thus, the major Eastern
religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism are also the common
representative of Eastern thought. These Eastern intellectual traditions differ greatly in
features and approaches to various issues about selfhood. For this reason, the Eastern
thought is described as pluralistic (Garcia, 2013). Although these four systems of Eastern
thought differ in their approaches about the concept of self, they share the same
goal—to teach how to become a perfect person. (Villaba, 1995)
Republic of the Philippines
BOHOL ISLAND STATE UNIVERSITY
[Address, Zip Code, Bohol, Philippines]
Office of the ___________________________
Balance I Integrity I Stewardship I Uprightness
THE SELF IN FOUR GREAT SYSTEMS OF EASTERN THOUGHT
A. Hinduism
The Hindu concept of the self is expounded in Vedanta, a major school of Indian
thought based on Upanishads, the classical Indian philosophical treatises. It has
been stated that Brahman is an absolute reality, and Atman (soul or spirit), the true
knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman.
Vedanta characterizes human suffering as the result of failure to realize the
distinction between the true self (permanent and unchanging) and the non-true self
(impermanent and changes continually).
The law of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. All actions are subject
to karma. Individual actions will lead to either good or bad outcomes in one’s life.
People get exactly what they deserve. If you do good deeds, you will be rewarded,
if you do bad, you will be punished. Therefore, the individual is the only one
responsible for the consequences of his or her actions (Garcia, 2008).
Hindus believe that Atman, being immortal soul, continues to be reincarnated from
the lifetime to lifetime until it is freed from the cycle of rebirth and reaches a state of
nirvana or non-birth (Garcia, 2008). Karma does not end with a body’s death, so its
influence may extend through incarnation of the soul.
B. Buddhism
Siddharta Gautama, known as Buddha, is the founder of Buddhism.
The self is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to hold and control
things, or human-centered needs; thus, the self is also the source of all these
sufferings (Ho, 1995).
It is then one’s quest to forget about the self, forget the cravings of the self, break
the attachments you have with the world and to renounce the self, which is the
cause of all suffering to attain the state of Nirvana (Ho, 1995).
The Four Noble Truths are the basic principles of Buddhism:
1. Life is suffering.
2. Suffering is caused by attachment to desires.
3. Suffering can be eliminated.
4. Elimination of suffering is through the practice if Eightfold Path:
• Right view
• Right aspiration
• Right speech
• Right action
• Right livelihood
• Right effort
• Right mindfulness
• Right
concentration
Republic of the Philippines
BOHOL ISLAND STATE UNIVERSITY
[Address, Zip Code, Bohol, Philippines]
Office of the ___________________________
Balance I Integrity I Stewardship I Uprightness
C. Confucianism
The Confucian doctrines are found in the Analects (Conversations of Confucius).
Confucianism can be seen as a code of ethical conduct, of how one should
properly act according to their relationship with other people to have harmonious
social life.
The core of Confucian thought is the Golden Rule or the principle of reciprocity:
“Do not do to others what you would not others to do to you.” Thus, the basic
virtue or proper conduct is knowing how to act in relation to others.
The most important of relationships are the Five Cardinal Relationships:
1. Between the ruler and minister
2. Between father and son
3. Between husband and wife
4. Between brothers
5. Between friends
Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life but characteristics of chun-
tzu, a man of virtue or noble character, is still embedded in his social relationships.
The cultivated self in Confucianism is what some scholars call a “subdued self”
wherein personal needs are repressed (subdued) for the good of many, making
Confucian society also hierarchical for the purpose of maintaining order and
balance in society (Ho, 1995).
D. Taoism
Taoism rejects the hierarchy and strictness brought by Confucianism and would
prefer a simple lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to describe how to attain that
life.
Taoism is living in the way of the Tao or the universe.
The self is not just an extension of the family or the community; it is part of the
universe.
The ideal self is selflessness, but this is not forgetting about the self, it is living a
balanced- life with society an nature and being open and accepting to change.
In this way, one will be able to act spontaneously because one is not restricted by
some legalistic standards but because you are in harmony with everything.
Dichotomy (Distinction) of Western and Eastern Conceptions of Self
POINTS OF
WESTERN THOUGHTS EASTERN THOUGHTS
COMPARISON
• Eastern thoughts emphasized
the self is relational rather than
• Western thoughts tend to individualistic.
view the self as autonomous,
Definition
unitary, and stable. • The self is considered not in
(van Meijl, 2008) isolation but in relation to
others, society, and the
universe.
a. They look in dualities. It is a. They see the other person as
when one is distinct from the part of oneself as well as things
other person. (Wolter, 2012) one creates. (Wolter, 2012)
Other Distinctions
and Examples
Example: Example:
• Evaluating the self for • For Asians, when they evaluate
Americans since they themselves, they’d rather keep
Republic of the Philippines
BOHOL ISLAND STATE UNIVERSITY
[Address, Zip Code, Bohol, Philippines]
Office of the ___________________________
Balance I Integrity I Stewardship I Uprightness
highlight their personal a low profile so as not to be
achievements. seen as boastful that disrupts
social relationship.
b. It is an individualistic culture b. It is a collectivist culture. The
and focus on the person. group and social relations are
given more importance than
individual needs and wants.
Example: Example:
• Westerners may seem to • Easterners look after the
have loose associations to welfare of their groups and
their groups. They are more values cooperation.
straight-forward and forceful
in communication and
decision-making.
c. They value equality even If c. They put emphasis on
they see that the individual hierarchical culture to keep
can rise above everything things in harmony and order.
else.
Example: Example:
• Westerners call their bosses, • Asians have respectful terms
parents, or other seniors by for their seniors and a lot of
their first name. workers would not dare go
against high-ranking officials.
References:
Alata, E., Caslib, B., Serafica, J. & Pawlien, R. (2018). Understanding the Self. Rex Printing Company, Inc.
Otig, V., Gallinero, W. & etc. (2018). A Holistic Approach in Understanding the Self. Mutya Publishing
House, Inc.