EE42: ADVANCE POWER SYSTEMS
WEEK 1 TOPIC LOAD FLOW CALCULATIONS
TOPIC OUTCOMES - Introduction to load flow
- Bus Classifications
- Bus Admittance matrix
- Load flow problem formulations
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Of all the areas of power system analysis carried out so far, load flow studies can be classified as
the core of all analysis. It provides us with the understanding of how we are using electricity that
affects its generation, transmission and distribution. The flow of load affects the performance of
the power system for present and it can be used to predict the future load growth, contingency
and reliability analysis.
1.1 CONCEPT
i. Electric energy is
Most popular form of energy
Can be transported easily at high efficiency with reasonable costing
ii The first electric network and relevant inventions
Invented by Thomas Edison in 1882 in Pearl Street Station, New York, United States
of America
It was a DC supply system that supplied lower Manhattan area
In 1885, William Stanley invented transformers and enabled AC generation and
transmission of electricity
In 1888, Nickolas Telstra invented induction motors which enabled the industries
to do-away with heavy –brush usages in dc machines especially at high dc voltages.
The first ac generation was at Oregon City but was a single phase system with a
transmission voltage of 4kV.
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Again in US, South California Edison Company installed the first 3-phase supply
system with the transmission voltage of 2.3kV 1893.
Thereabout many companies generated voltages to meet their respective loads
their own voltage and frequency.
However, the need for interconnection required standardizing of power supply
magnitude and frequency.
The European nations opted for 50Hz frequency and the US for 60Hz.
iii The current Trend
In 1969, the first Extra High Voltage (EHV) System at a voltage level of 275kV was
built in USA for commercial use.
For very long distance say over 500kM, it is preferable to have DC transmission
instead of AC. The first HVDC is 400kV (+ or -) was built in 1970 covering over
1300kM connecting Oregon to California.
Most developed nations have common power grid that comprise interconnection of
networks from private or corporate generation and transmission networks.
The Standalone networks which cannot be connected to the main grid due to
geographical regions are also referred to as power pools.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO LOAD FLOW
- Load flow studies are important in planning and designing future expansion of power
systems. The study gives steady state solutions of the voltages at all the buses, for a
particular load condition.
- Different steady state solutions can be obtained, for different operating conditions, to
help in planning, design and operation of the power system.
- Generally, load flow studies are limited to the transmission system, which involves bulk
power transmission.
- The load at the buses is assumed to be known.
- Load flow studies throw light on some of the important aspects of the system operation,
such as: violation of voltage magnitudes at the buses, overloading of lines, overloading of
generators, stability margin reduction, indicated by power angle differences between
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buses linked by a line, effect of contingencies like line voltages, emergency shutdown of
generators, etc.
- Load flow studies are required for deciding the economic operation of the power system.
- They are also required in transient stability studies. Hence, load flow studies play a vital
role in power system studies.
- Thus the load flow problem consists of finding the power flows (real and reactive) and
voltages of a network for given bus conditions.
- At each bus, there are four quantities of interest to be known for further analysis: the real
and reactive power, the voltage magnitude and its phase angle.
- Because of the nonlinearity of the algebraic equations, describing the given power
system, their solutions are determined from iterative methods. The constraints placed on
the load flow solutions could be:
i. Must qualify Kirchhoff’s relations,
ii. Within the capability limits of reactive power sources,
iii. Within the tap-setting range of tap-changing transformers,
iv. Within the limit of the specified power interchange between interconnected
systems,
v. the initial values, acceleration factor, convergence limit, selected for the load flow
studies must produce good results .
3.0 The Classification of buses for Load Flow Analysis (LFA):
Each substations in the power system complex has a specific performance characteristics
depending on what is being fed off the bus. There are four (4) classifications of buses for the
load flow analysis and they are each described below in Table 1.0.
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Table 1.0: Bus classification s for LFA
Example 1.
Classify buses in the Ramu Grid
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4.0 FORMULATION OF Y-BUS MATRIX
A power system comprises several buses which are interconnected by means of transmission
lines. Power is injected into a bus from generators while the loads are tapped from it, as
illustrated in the Figure 1, below. Note that S is the apparent power in MVA where S = P + jQ.
Figure 1
To develop a network model of a power system
i. Represent short line by a series impedance and a long line by a nominal -π model.
(Equivalent-π may be used for very long lines).
ii. Neglect line resistance for lines
iii. Assign loads as negative generators
iv. lump together the generator and load powers at the buses
Thus at the ith bus, the net complex power injected into the bus is given by
Si= Pi + jQi= (PGi- PDi)+ j(QGi- QDi)
Where the complex power supplied by the generators is
SGi= PGi+ iQGi
And the complex power drawn by the loads is
SDi = PDi+ iQDi
The real and reactive powers injected into the ith bus are then
Pi= PGi- PDi i = 1, 2,..,n
Qi= QGi- QDi
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4.1 TO DETERMINE YBUS BY FIRST PRINCIPLE
Assume load flow analysis is to be performed on a four-bus network
Convert voltage sources to current sources at each node.
Collect all the network variables for each branch voltage and present your answers in Matrix
form.
Comparing the specific network parameter with the standard form below.
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The network parameters as follows;
Descriptions of some network parameters are
Driving point admittance Yii or Ykk
Transfer admittances or mutual admittances , Yik or Yki and i = 1 , 2, 3, …, n
And Yik = Yki
Each time circuits are added or remove, the new network parameter must be determined
manually as demonstrated in example 1 below.
4.2 DETERMINING THE YBUS BY THE SINGULAR TRANSFORMATION METHOD
In order to find the network parameter, Z or Y, we have to consider its connectivity in the
enter network or what is known as its incidence in tree-graph analysis. Here, the individual
value of impedance per component cannot be used in load flow analysis. Emphasis is placed
on the connectivity of the circuit element.
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A tree graph of a network
The process of converting impedance network to its graph tree equivalent is as follows
i. Remove all circuit components and connect with lines
ii. Draw its tree and co-trees. Note that a tree must not contain loops. Applying the
properties of the tree graph, branches and loops can be identified.
Where the properties are defined as follows;
e is the number of elements
m is the number of main nodes
b is the number of branches
l is the number of links
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iii. Form the incidence matrix required to determine YBUS. When there is a positive
connection between elements, +1 represents the connection and -1 if the direction is
away from the node. No connection between the elements will be entered with 0.
Partitions are drawn to separate branch connection from links (loops). Note that the A b
is an identity I and the incidence matrix of links Al is the transpose At of the branch
incidence matrix, Ab.
When the values of the impedance or the admittance are given for any part of the network, it
is referred to as the primitive network value. And this value can be modelled as in impedance
or admittance form;
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The equation of the primitive network is
V + E = ZI and in admittance form
I + J = YV
Here V and I are the element voltage and current vectors respectively, and J and E are the
source vectors. Z and Y are referred to as the primitive impedance and admittance matrices,
respectively and they are reciprocals, for example, Z = Y -1. If there is no mutual coupling
between elements, Z and Y are diagonal where the diagonal entries are the
impedances/admittances of the network elements and are reciprocal. See example 1.
The network variable in bus frame of reference
Having selected the ground for reference equates the position for the branches voltages to the
tree branch voltages. Hence;
In matrix form
V = AVBUS And
Where the bus incidence matrix A was defined earlier
Substitute for V , we get
Pre-multiplying by AT
Each component of the n-dimensional vector ATI is the element currents leaving the nodes 1,2,
..., n. Therefore, the application of the KCL must result in
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ATI =0
Similarly, each component of the vector ATJ can be recognized as the algebraic sum of all source
currents injected in to nodes 1, 2, .., n. These components are therefore the bus currents,
hence it can be written that
Then from equation ( ),
The bus admittance matrix can then be obtained from the singular transformation of the
primitive Y, i.e.
YBUS = ATYA
A computer program can be developed to write the bus incidence matrix A from the
interconnection data of the directed elements of the power system. Standard matrix transpose
and multiplication subroutines can then be used to compute YBUS.
Any modification to the network can take effect by editing a “1” or a “0” in the incidence matric
A. Compared to the method of the first principle.
Example 1
Calculate the value for YBUS and confirm with the values obtained earlier using the
simultaneous equation.
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Having obtained the Ab, and entering the values of admittances as the diagonals of the
admittance matrix and convert to network bus matrix, YA produces the same result as in the
first method.
Example2
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