B.
Com Statistics – Module 2
TABULATION AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
Detailed Notes – Bangalore University
1. Introduction
After collecting data, the information may be large and difficult to understand in its original form. Therefore, collected
data must be organized, classified, presented and summarized in a meaningful manner.
The three important methods of presenting data are:
• Textual presentation
• Tabular presentation
• Diagrammatic and graphical presentation
2. Presentation of Data
Meaning: Presentation of data means arranging and displaying collected data in a systematic and understandable
form so that its important features can be easily studied and interpreted.
Objectives
• Simplify complex data.
• Make data easy to understand.
• Facilitate comparison.
• Save time and space.
• Identify important characteristics.
• Help in statistical analysis.
• Facilitate decision-making.
• Make conclusions easier.
• Present information attractively.
3. Types of Presentation of Data
• Textual Presentation – data is presented through words or paragraphs.
• Tabular Presentation – data is presented in rows and columns.
• Diagrammatic and Graphical Presentation – data is represented through diagrams, charts and graphs.
4. Textual Presentation of Data
Meaning: Textual presentation means presenting statistical information in the form of sentences or paragraphs. It is
suitable when the amount of data is small.
Example: Out of 100 students, 60 are boys and 40 are girls. Among the boys, 45 passed and 15 failed.
Advantages
• Simple to understand.
• Suitable for small amounts of data.
• No complicated calculations are required.
• Can be explained along with other information.
• Useful for reports and written explanations.
Limitations
• Not suitable for large data.
• Comparison is difficult.
• Important figures may not be easily identified.
• Takes more space when data is large.
• Less attractive than tables and diagrams.
5. Tabular Presentation of Data
Meaning: Tabulation means presenting data systematically in the form of rows and columns. A table helps to present a
large amount of information in a compact and understandable form.
Year Sales (■ lakh)
2023 50
2024 65
2025 80
2026 95
6. Objectives of Tabulation
• Simplify data.
• Facilitate comparison.
• Save space.
• Make data understandable.
• Identify trends.
• Facilitate statistical analysis.
• Provide a basis for diagrams and graphs.
• Help in decision-making.
7. Parts of a Statistical Table
Part Meaning
Table Number Identifies the table, e.g., Table No. 1.
Title Explains what the table is about.
Headnote Provides additional information such as units.
Captions Column headings.
Stubs Row headings.
Body Contains the actual numerical information.
Source Indicates where the data was obtained.
Footnote Provides additional clarification.
8. Types of Tables
A. One-Way Table
A one-way table presents data according to one characteristic only.
Gender Number of Students
Male 60
Female 40
Total 100
Here, only one characteristic—gender—is considered.
9. Important Statistical Terminologies
Variable
A variable is a characteristic that can take different values. Examples include age, income, height, weight and marks.
Quantitative Variable
A quantitative variable is a variable that can be expressed numerically. Examples: age, income, height, weight, marks
and sales.
Qualitative Variable
A qualitative variable describes qualities or attributes rather than numerical quantities. Examples: gender, religion,
marital status, literacy, occupation and blood group.
Discrete Variable
A discrete variable takes separate and countable values, usually whole numbers. Examples: number of students, cars,
children, employees and accidents.
Continuous Variable
A continuous variable can take any value within a given range. Examples: height, weight, temperature, time, distance
and age.
Discrete vs Continuous
Basis Discrete Variable Continuous Variable
Meaning Takes separate values Takes any value within a range
Nature Countable Measurable
Values Usually whole numbers Can include decimals
Example Number of students Height
Method Counting Measurement
Dependent Variable
A dependent variable is the variable whose value changes because of changes in another variable. Example: when
studying advertising expenditure and sales, sales is the dependent variable.
Independent Variable
An independent variable is a variable that influences or affects another variable. In the advertising and sales example,
advertising expenditure is the independent variable.
Relationship: Independent Variable → Dependent Variable
Frequency
Frequency refers to the number of times a particular value or class occurs in a dataset.
Marks Frequency
10 1
20 2
30 3
40 1
Frequency Distribution
A frequency distribution is a systematic arrangement of data showing the number of observations corresponding to
different values or classes.
Marks Number of Students
0–10 2
10–20 5
20–30 8
30–40 10
40–50 5
Class Interval
A class interval is the range between the lower and upper limits of a class. Example: in 20–30, the lower limit is 20 and
upper limit is 30.
Tally Bar / Tally Marks
Tally marks are used to count and record frequencies quickly. The fifth observation is generally represented by
crossing the first four marks.
Fruit Tally Frequency
Apple ||| 3
Mango || 2
Banana | 1
10. Rules for Constructing a Good Table
• Keep the table simple and easy to understand.
• Give a clear and meaningful title.
• Classify data logically.
• Mention units such as ■, kg or percentage.
• Avoid unnecessary information.
• Arrange rows and columns properly.
• Mention the source wherever required.
• Provide totals where appropriate.
• Ensure accuracy.
• Make comparison easy.
11. Diagrammatic Presentation of Data
Diagrammatic presentation means presenting statistical data through diagrams such as bars, rectangles, circles and
other visual forms.
Advantages
• Easy to understand.
• Attractive.
• Facilitates comparison.
• Saves time.
• Helps identify trends.
• Useful for non-technical persons.
• Makes statistical information interesting.
• Useful for business presentations.
Limitations
• Exact values may not always be known.
• Cannot present very detailed information.
• Improper diagrams can mislead.
• Preparation requires care.
• Not suitable for all types of data.
12. Types of Diagrams
• One-dimensional diagrams.
• Simple bar diagram.
• Sub-divided bar diagram.
• Multiple bar diagram.
• Percentage bar diagram.
• Two-dimensional diagrams.
• Pie chart.
• Graphs.
13. One-Dimensional Diagrams
In a one-dimensional diagram, only one dimension—usually length—is proportional to the magnitude of the data. The
important example is the bar diagram.
14. Simple Bar Diagram
A simple bar diagram represents data involving one variable or one characteristic. Bars are generally of equal width,
while their lengths are proportional to the values.
Year Sales
2023 20
2024 30
2025 40
Characteristics
• Bars have equal width.
• Equal space is maintained between bars.
• Length of bar represents magnitude.
• A suitable scale is selected.
• Bars can be vertical or horizontal.
Rules
• Give a suitable title.
• Draw X-axis and Y-axis.
• Select an appropriate scale.
• Keep all bars of equal width.
• Maintain equal distance between bars.
• Make length proportional to values.
• Mention the scale clearly.
• Label bars properly.
• Preferably start the scale from zero.
• Keep the diagram neat.
15. Sub-Divided Bar Diagram
A sub-divided bar diagram represents a total quantity divided into different components. The total length represents the
total value, while individual sections represent components.
Item Expenditure
Food ■8,000
Rent ■6,000
Education ■3,000
Transport ■2,000
Total ■19,000
It is useful when we want to study both the total value and its components.
16. Multiple Bar Diagram
A multiple bar diagram consists of two or more bars placed together for each category to facilitate comparison between
related variables.
Year Boys Girls
2024 40 35
2025 45 42
2026 50 48
It is useful for comparing male and female population, sales of two products, exports and imports, actual and budgeted
figures, etc.
17. Percentage Bar Diagram
A percentage bar diagram represents each total as 100%, and the total bar is divided according to the percentage
contribution of different components.
Example: Food 40%, Education 30%, Transport 20%, Other 10%. The total bar represents 100%.
18. Two-Dimensional Diagrams
In two-dimensional diagrams, area represents the magnitude of the data. Examples include rectangles, squares and
pie charts.
19. Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circular diagram in which the entire circle represents the total value, usually 100%, and different sectors
represent different components.
Formula: Sector Angle = (Component Value ÷ Total Value) × 360°
Example: If total expenditure is ■50,000 and food expenditure is ■10,000, the angle is (10,000 ÷ 50,000) × 360° =
72°.
Steps in Construction
• Find the total value.
• Calculate the angle for each component.
• Draw a circle.
• Use a protractor to mark calculated angles.
• Label each sector.
• Give a suitable title.
• Use a legend/key if necessary.
Advantages
• Attractive and easy to understand.
• Shows composition of a total.
• Useful for percentage data.
• Facilitates comparison of components.
• Suitable for presentations.
Limitations
• Difficult to compare many small components.
• Exact values are not always easily identified.
• Not suitable for many categories.
• Requires accurate calculation of angles.
20. Graphical Presentation of Data
Graphical presentation means representing numerical data through graphs. Graphs are particularly useful for studying
trends, relationships, changes over time, distribution and comparison.
21. Difference Between Diagram and Graph
Basis Diagram Graph
Main purpose Attractive presentation Analysis and interpretation
Accuracy Usually less emphasis on exact values More emphasis on accurate values
Use General presentation Statistical analysis
Examples Bar, pie chart Line graph and other statistical graphs
Basis Diagram Graph
Nature Visual Analytical
22. General Rules for Construction of Graphs
• Give a suitable title.
• Select a proper scale.
• Clearly identify X-axis and Y-axis.
• Mention units.
• Label important points and lines.
• Maintain accuracy.
• Keep the graph simple.
• Mention source if required.
23. Importance of Diagrams and Graphs in Business
• Sales analysis.
• Profit analysis.
• Production analysis.
• Market research.
• Budget analysis.
• Financial reporting.
• Population analysis.
• Business forecasting.
• Performance comparison.
• Decision-making.
24. Tabular, Diagrammatic and Graphical Presentation – Comparison
Basis Tabular Diagrammatic Graphical
Form Rows and columns Visual diagrams Graphs
Main purpose Organization Presentation Analysis
Detail Can provide detailed data Less detailed Analytical
Comparison Easy Very easy Easy
Accuracy High Relatively lower High
Appearance Simple Attractive Analytical
Example Frequency table Bar diagram Line graph
25. Short Examination Definitions
Presentation of Data: Systematic arrangement and display of collected information in a meaningful form.
Tabulation: Systematic presentation of data in rows and columns.
Variable: A characteristic that can take different values.
Frequency: Number of times a particular value or class occurs.
Class Interval: Range between the lower and upper limits of a class.
Tally Marks: Counting marks used to record frequencies conveniently.
Simple Bar Diagram: Diagram using equal-width bars whose lengths are proportional to values.
Pie Chart: Circular diagram divided into sectors representing components of a total.
Quantitative Variable: Variable that can be expressed numerically.
Qualitative Variable: Variable representing qualities or attributes.
Discrete Variable: Variable taking separate and countable values.
Continuous Variable: Variable that can take any value within a given range.
26. Important Formulae
Pie Chart: Sector Angle = (Component Value / Total Value) × 360°
Percentage: Percentage = (Part / Total) × 100
Percentage Bar: Total bar = 100%; individual components are represented according to their percentage values.
27. Important Examination Questions
2-Mark Questions
• Define presentation of data.
• What is tabulation?
• What is a variable?
• Define frequency.
• What is a class interval?
• What is a tally mark?
• Define discrete variable.
• Define continuous variable.
• What is a simple bar diagram?
• What is a pie chart?
• What is a qualitative variable?
• What is a quantitative variable?
• What is an independent variable?
• What is a dependent variable?
• What is a percentage bar diagram?
5/8-Mark Questions
• Explain the different methods of presentation of data.
• Explain the parts of a statistical table.
• Explain the rules for constructing a good table.
• Distinguish between discrete and continuous variables.
• Explain the different types of bar diagrams.
• Explain simple bar diagram with its uses.
• Explain sub-divided and multiple bar diagrams.
• Explain the advantages and limitations of diagrammatic presentation.
• Explain pie chart and the procedure for its construction.
• Explain the rules for construction of graphs.
Long-Answer Questions
• Explain the different methods of presentation of data in detail.
• Explain tabular presentation of data and discuss the parts of a statistical table.
• Explain different types of diagrams with suitable examples.
• Explain simple, multiple, sub-divided and percentage bar diagrams.
• What is a pie chart? Explain its construction, advantages and limitations.
• Explain the important statistical terms used in tabulation and presentation of data.
28. Module 2 – Quick Revision
• Presentation of Data → Textual + Tabular + Diagrammatic/Graphical
• Variable → Quantitative + Qualitative
• Quantitative Variable → Discrete + Continuous
• Tabulation → Rows + Columns
• Frequency → Number of occurrences
• Class Interval → Range of a class
• Tally Marks → Used for counting frequency
• One-way Table → One characteristic
• Bar Diagrams → Simple + Multiple + Sub-divided + Percentage
• Two-dimensional → Area-based diagrams
• Pie Chart → Circle = 360° = 100%
• Pie Chart Formula → (Component / Total) × 360°