Hwa Chong Institution Name: ____________________________ ( )

Physics 2026
Sec 4 Class: 4_______ Date: ____ /____ / ____

Practical Notes

1. Reading and recording of raw data

A) Precision of instruments
The table below summarizes the precision of each instrument used in experiments.

Example
Smallest Nearest value
No Apparatus of Remarks
division to record
recording
Ammeter 0.24 A
1 0.02 A 0.01 A
(0 – 1 A) 0.31 A
These
Voltmeter 2.15 V
2 0.1 V 0.05 V instruments’
(0 – 5 V) 2.20 V
readings are
Laboratory recorded to half
37.5 ºC
3 thermometer 1 ºC 0.5 ºC the smallest
91.0 ºC
(-10 to 110 ºC) division.
Measuring cylinder 18.0 cm3
4 1 cm3 0.5 cm3
(100 cm3) 45.5 cm3
1 mm or 1 mm or 20 mm
5 Half – metre rule 0.1 cm or 0.1 cm or 12.1 cm
0.001 m 0.001 m 0.043 m
1 mm or 1 mm or 652 mm
6 Metre rule 0.1 cm or 0.1 cm or 88.3 cm
0.001 m 0.001 m 0.943 m
36 º These
7 Protractor 1º 1º instruments’
45 º
readings are
Spring balance 5.0 N recorded to the
8 0.1 N 0.1 N
(0 – 10 N) 5.7 N smallest
0.1 s 28.1 s division.
10 Stopwatch (digital) 0.01 s
or 1 s 28 s
Digital micrometer 0.01 mm or 2.00 mm
11 0.001 mm
screw gauge 0.001 mm 2.111 mm
0.1 mm or 7.2 mm
12 Digital calipers 0.01 mm
0.01 mm 7.89 mm
Reading
121.20 g depends on
13 Electronic balance 0.01 g 0.01 g
2.40 g electronic
balance setting.

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The method to obtain readings in some of the common instruments is discussed below.

1. Metre rule

• Read to the smallest division.

• Take note of the decimal place (d.p.)

cm 1 d.p. (1.9 cm)

mm whole number (19 mm)
m 3 d.p. (0.019 m)

2. Digital stopwatch

Note: Do not record timing as “3539” or “35 39”

• Read to 2 d.p. unless otherwise stated (The time interval can be very short for some
experiments and thus the question will specify to record timings to nearest second).
• Record as 35.39 s

3. Electronic mass balance

• Reset the machine first (Press the “tare” button).
• Once reading is stable, record reading accordingly in grams.

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4. Thermometers (Laboratory)

• Read to half the smallest division. i.e. the last digit: 0 ºC or 5 ºC

• Record the above as 31.5 ºC

5. Voltmeters & ammeters

• Read up to half the smallest division for both.

2 d.p. Last digit: 0 or 5 2 d.p. Last digit: 0 to 9.

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B) General precautions for experiments
The tables below describe precautions that are taken for the various types of experiments. These
precautions should be followed and will help improve the accuracy of the readings obtained.

Mechanics
Precautions
Measurements of • The eye must be placed vertically above the scale when reading the
width, diameter, ruler/protractor/etc. to avoid parrallax error.
angles. etc • Take reading over a few points and find the average value.
• Make sure that pendulum is swinging in a plane so that correct timing
of oscillation can be taken.
• Allow a few oscillations to take place before starting the stopwatch.
• Take the lowest point of oscillation as the reference point to start
Period of
timing.
oscillation
• Fans must be switched off so that the time taken is not affected by
draught.
• Take 2 sets of readings per interval for 20 oscillations, find the average
and divide by 20.
• Make sure there are no air bubbles in the liquid when taking readings.
Volume of
• Make sure solid is dry before lowering into liquid.
irregular solid
• Ensure no liquid spillage or splashes when lowering the solid.
• Ensure plumb line (a string with a bob), is hanged freely with the plane
Determining C.G lamina at three locations.
of plane lamina • After obtaining the intersection from two traced lines, use the third
traced line to confirm the C.G.
Principle of • Always measure the distance from pivot to centre of gravity of mass of
moments object to obtain the perpendicular distance.

Heat
Precautions
• The eye must be placed in line with the top of the meniscus of the mercury thread in the
thermometer to avoid parallax error.
• Switch off the fan so as to minimise heat loss to surrounding.
• Stir the liquid in the beaker/boiling tube/test tube quickly to ensure even distribution of heat.
• If lagging (insulation) is used, make sure it is adequte to reduce heat loss to surrounding.
• If transferring a hot liquid from one container to another is required, transfer the liquid quickly
so as to minimise heat loss to surrounding.

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Light
Precautions
• Pins must be placed vertically so that image can be located accurately.
• The eye must be placed vertically above the scale when reading the
ruler/protractor/etc. to avoid parallax error.
Experiments • Make sure pins are reasonably far apart (at least 5 cm apart).
involving pins • Close one eye when aligning pins and do not tilt head when looking at
pins.
• Check back using the refractive index of glass. (n of glass usually about
1.5; although could range from 1.48 to 1.96)
• The eye must be placed vertically above the scale when reading the
ruler to avoid parallax error.
• The illuminated object, lens and screen must be placed in line so that
image can be obtained accurately.
Experiments
• In order to obtain a sharp image, the lens must be placed upright and
involving lenses
parallel to the screen. The distance between lens and screen is the
approximated focal length.
• The torch light must be switched off when not in use so as to conserve
the e.m.f of the batteries.

Electricity
Precautions
• The eye must be placed vertically above the scale when reading the ruler/ammeter/
voltmeter etc. to avoid parallax error.
• All connections must be tightened so as not to increase the resistance in the circuit and
readings taken.
• Ensure positive terminal of meter is connected to positive terminal of batteries.
• The zero error in meters must be corrected so as to avoid errors in meter readings.
• Make sure that there in no ‘kink’ in the bare resistance wires (usually in potentiometer) as
this would reduce the accuracy in the measurement of the length of wire.
• The circuit must be switched off when not in use so that heat is not produced in the
resistance wire (resistance of wire may vary because of difference in temperature) and also
to conserve the e.m.f of the batteries.
• When using the jockey, do not press it tightly on the wire as this will alter the thickness of
the wire and hence changes its resistance.
• The jockey must be held vertically on the wire so that point of contact with wire is small and
reading taken will be accurate.

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2. Tabulation of data

The presentation of experimental data is a crucial part of the practical exam. The section below
describes the guidelines in data tabulation.
A) Number of readings
• Take note of the number of readings required.
• “Take five more readings…” implies there are six readings to take all together.
• If not stated, take at least six sets of readings.

B) Range of readings
• Take a range as wide as possible.
• Equal intervals are preferred but not a must.
• Take at least eight readings for a curve.
• E.g. Six readings between 30º to 70º → take readings at 30º, 40º, 50º, 60º, 65º, 70º

C) Recording of data
Consider the data tabulated for an experiment on period of oscillation.

• No units, only values. (Units found only at headings)

• Raw data in the first column are recorded in either an ascending or descending order.
• Raw data in the same column must have same precision (d.p depends on the instrument)
o E.g. Under column for length L, all readings must be in 1 d.p.
o Under time measured t1, t2, all readings in 1 d.p (due to uncertainty from human reaction
time).
o Thus t ave also in 1 d.p.
• For values that involves calculation from a raw data, follow the s.f of the raw data.
o E.g. Period T is calculated by dividing t ave by 20 (ignore s.f of constant).
o t ave is in 3 s.f, T is also in 3 s.f.
o T2 is calculated from T.
o Since T is in 3 s.f, T2 is also in 3 s.f.

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3. Graph plotting

Graph plotting is usually performed after the tabulation of data. The accuracy of the graph is
important because its gradient and intercepts are subsequently used in calculations. In this
section, the guidelines of plotting are listed.
A) General guidelines
Terms used:
1. Use a sharp pencil to plot graph. 1 square (sq) is 2 cm by 2 cm.
1 grid is the smallest square of
2. Label both axes with variable/unit. (e.g. T2/s2 and L/m)
graph paper.
3. Axis markings on at least every 2 sq.
4. “Plot a graph of T2/s2 against L/m” means T2/s2 is the vertical axis and L/m is the horizontal
axis.
5. Select an appropriate scale. (e.g. 1 sq to 2 units) Other acceptable scale 1 sq to 1, 5, 10,
20 or 50 units. Avoid 1 sq to 3 units or 7 units or 25 units
6. Scale should allow the length of first to last data point to occupy more than half of graph
paper in both directions. (At least 6 sqs for vertical, 5 sqs for horizontal.)
7. Need not start from origin if question does not require. Label the starting values at the
intersection of the axis and do not use zig zag to cut the axis.

8. Mark a cross “X” to represent plotted points. Big crosses will be penalized.
9. Points plotted must be accurate to half the smallest grid.
10. Draw best-fit straight line graphs with approximately equal number of points that are
close to the line drawn on both above and below the line. The line drawn may or may
not pass through any of the plotted points.
11. For stray (anomalous) points, adjust the best fit line to include the reading. If it is not
possible, retake the reading for that point if time permits. If there is not enough time, ignore
stray point by circling it and labelling it
“anomalous data”.
12. Draw smooth curves (e.g. cooling curves).
Do not connect individual points.

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Examples of desirable and undesirable graphs

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B) Analysis of graph
1. Determining gradient
Gradient triangle’s hypotenuse must be longer than half length of the line of best fit.
Working for gradient calculation should be shown clearly.

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2. Reading values from graph
Readings interpreted from the graph (e.g. y-intercept value) should be read to accuracy
within one half of the smallest square on the grid. Dotted perpendicular lines should be
drawn to connect the data point to both the horizontal and vertical axis.

3. Determining graph intercepts

Read question if intercepts are needed before setting axis starting values. To show y-
intercept, ensure x-axis starts from zero (likewise x-intercept, y-axis starts from zero).
Label the intercept on the axis to accuracy within one half of the smallest square on the
grid. If false origin (i.e graph axis values do not start from zero) is used in the graph,
calculation using y = mx + c can be shown to obtain the y-intercept.

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Diagram of a good graph

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4. Sources of errors

Key sources of errors of the experiment are often asked at the end of the practical exam. The
required answer is open-ended and requires much thinking and thus, can be difficult to answer.
Suggestions on steps to reduce the sources of error might be asked subsequently.

How to answer the question?

Key sources of errors in an experiment are errors that can affect the result of the experiment.
They lead to significant errors in the results and are usually inherent to the experiment due to the
procedure and the apparatus used in the experiment.

You may ask these guiding questions to help you identify these significant sources of error.
• Which experimental procedure was difficult to carry out?
• Which measurements were difficult to observe and record accurately?
• Other than the variables measured, are there any other factors that could have affected the
results?

Errors that can be either corrected with better practical skills or gives a consistent error
throughout the whole experiment will not be accepted as key sources of error. Some examples
of common incorrect answers are human reaction error, parallax error, random error and zero
error of apparatus. External factors like varying room temperature and presence of wind are often
not accepted as source of errors.

To have a structured answer, the following questions can be used as a guide.

• Describe the source of error.
• Elaborate how does the error affects the readings of the experiment.

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 Below is a table on examples of common sources of errors and improvements.

Precautions to take for various experiment

MECHANICS
Experiment Source of error Improvements / Precautions
Parallax Metre rule:
Error The eye must always be placed vertically above the
point X on the scale as shown.
(will occur in
various
experiments
where
measurement
s are made)

Thermometer:
The eye must
be positioned in line
with the top of the
meniscus of the
mercury thread in the
thermometer as
shown.

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 Measuring cylinder:
For liquids other than
mercury, read off the
bottom of the meniscus
at eye level as shown.

Ammeter (or Voltmeter):

Move your head above the ammeter until the image
of the pointer in the mirror is covered by the pointer
as shown.

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 Checking for horizontal and vertical
alignments.
• Horizontal:
• Use a spirit level.
• Use a plumbline and a set-square.
• Measure both ends from the top of the
bench.
• Vertical: Use a plumbline.
Pendulum 1. The thread may be slightly elastic, therefore affecting length X of Improvement:
Experiment pendulum. • Take the length before every reading.
2. The thread may have slip through the split cork, therefore
affecting the length X of pendulum. Precaution:
3. The length of the pendulum is measured from the point of • Allow the pendulum to swing a few times
suspension to the centre of the bob. before starting to record the time. Start
counting only when there is a steady
oscillation. The swings must be in a plane.
• Start the count from "nought" when you start
your stop-watch.
• The angle of swing to the vertical should be
kept small, preferably less than 10 o.
• The retort stand should be stable to reduce
wobbling which otherwise would increase the
inaccuracy in timing.
Experiments Improvement:
with spring • Load the spring gently.
Precaution
• Suspend spring firmly to prevent yielding.

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 • Oscillate with small amplitude, or else at its
highest point, the adjacent turn of the spring
will press against each other.

Balancing 1. The retort stands are old and rusty, it is difficult to make small Precaution:
ruler / changes to height of the metre rule. Thus the metre rule may not 1. Ensure the ruler is horizontal by measuring the
moments be exactly horizontal. distance from the ruler to the table at both ends.
2. The reference point where it is used to measure the length of These distances should be the same.
spring may not be consistent. Hence, affecting length X. 2. Read the ruler (to obtain length of spring) at eye
3. To measure X, the 30 cm rule has to be held vertically by hand. level to avoid parallax error, so as to have
However, error is incurred in this measurement as the rule could accurate reading of length X.
not be held steadily.
4. The spring does not stretch linearly (or has too small an
extension) for smaller values of X near the pivot.
5. The mass may have shifted and the distance between the weight
and pivot will be different, therefore affecting the force that is
needed.
Centre of 1. The plumbline and the card will move/oscillate if the ruler touches Improvement:
gravity it. This makes it difficult to measure X accurately as ruler cannot Draw labelled markings on the card according to the
be placed against the card. ruler scale so that X can be read off the card.
LIGHT
Experiments 1. Due to the size of the paper, the pins could not be placed far Precaution:
involving apart. This may cause inaccuracy in the location and 1. Pins must be placed vertically so that image can
pins and measurement of ray XY. be located accurately.
glass 2. The holes made by the pins provided are rather large thus 2. The eye must be placed vertically above the
blocks affecting the accurate construction of the paths of incident and scale when reading the ruler/protractor/etc. to
emergent rays. avoid parallax error.
3. The bevel edge of the glass block does Snot allow the tracing of 3. Make sure pins are reasonably far apart (at least
the glass block to be accurate. Therefore, the glass block may 5 cm apart).

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Refraction not be placed back to the original place, thus affecting incident 4. Close one eye when aligning pins and do not tilt
through angle X. head when looking at pins.
blocks
Total internal1. The holes made by the pins provided are rather large thus
reflection affecting the accurate construction of the paths of incident and
emergent rays.
2. The bevel edge of the glass block do not allow the tracing of the
glass block to be accurate. Therefore, the glass block may not
be placed back to the original place, thus affecting incident angle
X.
Reflection 1. The mirror is very light and shifts during the experiment. This
causes error in the angle of incidence X and hence the emergent
ray.
2. The holes made by the pins provided are rather large thus
affecting the accurate construction of the paths of incident and
emergent rays.
Experiments 1. The edge of the object is uneven which makes it difficult to locate • The lens should be placed upright and
involving the position of the sharp image. Thus X may not be accurate. parallel to the screen.
lenses Foca 2. The entire illuminated object may not be exactly parallel to the • There will be times when the exact distance
l length of a lens due to the texture of the cardboard. Thus X may not be of an image formed on the screen is
convex lens accurate. uncertain. For such cases, it is best to take
the average distance of the "sharp image".
• The object distance and the image distance
should be measured from the optical centre to
the object or image respectively. Experiments
dealing with lenses usually require a dim
surrounding so as to obtain a clearer image.
Magnification 1. In order to measure X, the ruler must be placed against the lens
of an object and thus lens may be slightly shifted during the experiment.

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 2. The middle of lens holder may not coincide with the centre of the
lens and thus incurring an error in the measurement of X.
3. Though eye is placed close to the card ‘C’ the position of
observer may not be exactly the same throughout the
experiment.
THERMAL ENERGY
Experiments 1. Heat gain from the surrounding may cause the temperature to Improvement:
using be higher. • Lagging with a jacket to reduce heat loss to
calorimeters 2. Mass of solid may not be the same as the mass that is measured the surrounding.
Cooling of as some may be stuck onto the filter paper. • Provide a cover to reduce heat loss through
liquid 3. The amount of stirring in the two experiments is different due to rising hot air.
the different exposed areas of the cups (one with hole in lid and • Place a Styrofoam cup around the beaker to
the other without lid). provide insulation to reduce heat conducted
4. It is difficult to read the thermometer and stopwatch at the same to/from the surrounding.
time. The temperature read at each interval may not be correct. • stirred continuously (with a stirrer, in the
5. Temperature throughout water may not be uniform because absence of which the thermometer may be
stirring is difficult. used but with added caution so that the bulb
Mixing of 1. Initial temperature of water may not be that of boiling water due does not touch the sides or it may break) for
liquids at to loss of heat to surrounding when transferring it to water. Thus, uniform temperature throughout the liquid
different tx and tw may be inaccurate. content.
temperatures 2. Final temperature X measured may not be that of the mixture • When transferring a hot liquid from one
because heat is also lost to the surrounding. container to another, do so quickly
to minimise heat loss to the surroundings.

Precaution:
• Ensure the bulb of the thermometer is at the
centre of the fluid/immersed.
• Take care that the experiment is not
conducted in an area where draught is

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 present. The loss of heat would affect the
accuracy of the final result.
• Do not place the calorimeter too near to
the bunsen burner.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Electricity 1. The wire becomes hot after some time and thus value of X may Improvement:
be different (heat dissipated at wire will affect resistance of wire • Open the switch after every reading.
and hence values of X). • Ensure that there is no "kink" in the bare
2. There are kinks in the wire and thus wire cannot be straightened resistance wires as this would reduce the
on ruler and length X is inaccurate. accuracy in the measurement of the length.
3. The wires are not of uniform thickness thus the readings X taken • Ensure that the switch is tightly closed.
at each point may not reflect the actual values. • The circuit should not be turned on for too
4. The reference point in which the wire is measured is not long as this would produce a heating effect in
consistent, thus affecting length X. the resistance wire.
5. Contact of jockey is not consistent thus causing some variations • Do not join two pieces of wires for the sake of
in the potential difference reading X. lengthening the wire. Bear in mind that the
6. The batteries may be old and not able to supply as a consistent contact point has a resistance that is quite
emf, thus affecting the current X. significant.
7. There are fluctuations of the pointer making it difficult to obtain • When a crocodile clip is connected to a
the accurate value of potential difference X. (in some instances). resistance wire in an experiment, the
measurement should be carried out from the
side of the clip and not from the centre of the
clip.
• Always check for zero errors in the measuring
meters.
• When using any meters, check the full-scale
deflections and mentally tell yourself the
value of each division before you start work.

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All answers to sources of error must follow the following format:

State

1. the possible error

2. how this error affects the specific physical quantity that you measured (this will be a
value in your table of values) during the experiment and
3. hence your overall results

Example: Suppose you are attempting to mix two different liquids with different specific heat capacities
and with different temperatures (say one hot and another cold relative to room temperature), perhaps
to determine the final temperature reached. The final temperature will be given by

(𝑚ℎ × 𝑐1 × 𝑇ℎ ) + (𝑚𝑐 × 𝑐2 × 𝑇𝑐 )
𝑇𝑓 =
(𝑚ℎ × 𝑐1 ) + (𝑚𝑐 × 𝑐2 )

where

Tf : final temperature.

mh : mass of hot liquid

Th : temperature of hot liquid

c1 : specific heat capacity of hot liquid

mc : mass of cold liquid

Tc : temperature of cold liquid

c2 : specific heat capacity of cold liquid

By the time you have collected the hot and cold liquids, their temperature will be reaching thermal
equilibrium with the room temperature (the source of error). Hence the values of Th and Tc (you have
listed the physical quantities affected directly) may not be the temperatures listed on the front of the
hot water tank and cold water bottle. Hence Tf will be greater or smaller (you have shown how the
overall quantity or result of interest of the experiment will have changed) than the actual value (from
here it depends on the given c1 and c2 values)

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1. Planning

Planning questions test on the skills in identifying the variables in an investigation and writing an
experiment procedure in a coherent manner. Typically, marks are awarded for the points listed
below and can be used as a checklist when answering the question.

Marking point
• identifying independent variable, dependent variable and control variables (give at least 2)
• describing precautions to obtain accurate and reliable readings
• describing how the dependent variable is measured
• describing how the independent variable is varied to obtain a set of data for graph plotting
• draw a table to display the measurements and calculated values (no data required)
• describing the graph plotted for the investigation (either to verify relationship or to obtain
unknown constants)
Depending on question
• stating how unknown constants can be determined using the graph (e.g. calculating
gradient, determining y-intercept, calculating reciprocal of gradient etc)
• stating how the relationship between the variables (e.g. proportional, linearly-related, non-
linearly related, independent) can be shown using the graph (may be asked to provide a
sketch of the graph)

How to answer the question?

When writing the procedure, the independent, dependent and control variables (give at least two)
should be clearly stated and the steps should be written in concise sentences and numbered
accordingly. Listed below are some pointers on answering the planning question.

1. Always begin by identifying the variables. To identify the independent and dependent
variables, match the equation given to Y = mX + C where Y is the dependent variable and X
is the independent variable. The equation given in the question needs to be rearranged in
some cases.

Example: Investigate the relationship between magnification m and image distance v.

Analysis: From the equation, magnification m is the dependent variable, image distance v is
the independent variable, 1/f is the gradient of the graph and –1 is the y-intercept.

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 To identify the control variables, focus on key factors that can affect the measurements
directly. Be specific when stating the control variables.

Example:  type of lens ✓ focal length of lens

2. To state precautions that are relevant, focus on how to set the independent variable and how
to obtain the dependent variable.

Example: To obtain accurate values of magnification m, the image and object distance must
be accurate. Relevant precautions would be steps to ensure these distances are accurate
such as ensuring the lens holder are parallel to the metre rule when measuring the distances.

3. To describe how the dependent variable is obtained and independent variable is varied, you
may modify the instructions given in the parts of the question that was carried out before the
planning question. Be specific in describing how the dependent variable is obtained by stating
which steps are repeated, the change in the independent variable and the number of times to
repeat. You may be asked to draw the table to record the data.

Example: Repeat steps 3 to 8 with different distances between cross-wire and lens to obtain
five further values of magnification m.

4. To identify the graph plotted, the dependent variable will be the y-axis and the independent
variable will be the x-axis. The answer should be a short statement.

Example: Plot a graph of magnification m against image distance v.

5. To use the graph for the investigation, read the question carefully for the requirements (e.g.
determine unknown value, verify relationship, show sketch of graph etc). Separate the steps
and not lump them together.
Example:
 Calculate the gradient of the graph and flip the gradient to obtain f.
✓ Calculate the gradient of the graph.
Calculate the reciprocal of the gradient to obtain f.

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