CLASS 10 BIOLOGY — PECTAA 2026 (BISE FAISALABAD)

CHAPTER 1: HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Exam Notes — Definitions, Short Questions, Long Questions & Exercise MCQs

KEY DEFINITIONS (Learn these — asked directly as 1–2 mark short questions)
• Nutrition: the process by which organisms obtain and utilize food to grow, get energy and repair the body.
• Autotrophic nutrition: a mode of nutrition in which organisms produce their own food from inorganic substances
using light or chemical energy.
• Heterotrophic nutrition: a mode of nutrition in which organisms obtain their food by consuming other organisms or
organic matter.
• Ingestion: taking in food and drinks through the mouth.
• Digestion: breaking down of large, insoluble food molecules (polymers) into smaller, soluble molecules (monomers)
that the body can absorb.
• Absorption: moving nutrients from the digested food into the blood or lymph.
• Assimilation: using the absorbed nutrients in cells and tissues.
• Egestion: removing undigested food and waste from the body.
• Alimentary canal: the long tube of the digestive system that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus.
• Peristalsis: the waves of muscular contraction in the walls of the alimentary canal that move food forward.
• Bolus: the food mass formed in the oral cavity after mechanical and partial chemical digestion, ready to be swallowed.
• Chyme: the soup-like mixture formed when food is churned and mixed with gastric juice in the stomach.
• Emulsification: the process in which bile salts break large fat droplets into small droplets, forming a milky fluid.
• Villi (singular villus): millions of finger-like projections on the folds of the small intestine that increase surface area
for absorption of food.
• Faeces: undigested material, bacteria, broken cells and bile pigments, solidified after water absorption in the large
intestine.

SHORT QUESTIONS (2 Marks Each)

Q1. What is meant by nutrition? Differentiate between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
• Nutrition is how organisms get and use nutrients; it helps them grow, stay healthy and repair their bodies.
• Autotrophic nutrition: organisms make their own food from inorganic substances using light/chemical energy.
Heterotrophic nutrition: organisms obtain food by consuming other organisms (animals, including humans, show
this type).

Q2. State the role of salivary glands in digestion.

• Three pairs of salivary glands are attached with the oral cavity and secrete saliva — a mixture of water, mucus and the
enzyme salivary amylase.
• Water and mucus moisten the food; salivary amylase breaks down starch present in food into maltose (partial
chemical digestion).

Q3. What do the terms swallowing and peristalsis mean?

• Swallowing: after physical and partial chemical digestion, the bolus formed in the oral cavity is pushed by the tongue
into the pharynx and swallowed.
• Peristalsis: the successive waves of muscular contraction generated in the walls of the oesophagus (and alimentary
canal) that move food along to the stomach.

Q4. What is the function of epiglottis?

• Epiglottis is an elastic cartilage tissue present in the pharynx that prevents the entry of food particles into the lungs.
• When food is swallowed, the top of the trachea is pushed up against the epiglottis, closing the glottis (opening of
trachea) so food passes over it into the oesophagus.
Q5. What are the functions of HCl in gastric juice?
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) converts the inactive enzyme pepsinogen into the active enzyme pepsin.
• HCl also kills pathogenic bacteria present in food.

Q6. What is chyme? How is it formed?

• Food remains in the stomach for 3–4 hours where it is mechanically churned and mixed with gastric juice.
• Due to these actions, food becomes a soup-like mixture called chyme, which passes little by little (5–15 mL at a time)
into the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter.

Q7. State the role of pancreatic juice in digestion of food.

• Pancreatic juice enters the duodenum through the pancreatic duct and contains enzymes trypsin, pancreatic amylase
and lipase, which digest proteins, carbohydrates and lipids respectively.
• It also contains sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the acidity of chyme entering the duodenum.

Q8. Write a brief note on the structure of villi.

• The inner walls of the small intestine are highly folded, and these folds bear millions of finger-like projections called
villi, which provide a large surface area for absorption.
• The wall of a villus is a single layer of cells; inside each villus there are blood capillaries and a lymph vessel called
the lacteal.

Q9. What is emulsification and what is its importance?

• Emulsification is the process in which bile (secreted by the liver) breaks large fat droplets into small droplets, keeping
them separate and forming a milky fluid.
• This increases the surface area of fats, which helps enzymes (like lipase) to attack and digest the lipids more
efficiently.

Q10. State the role of liver in the digestive system. (any two functions)
• Liver secretes bile, which is stored in the gall bladder and helps in emulsification of fats; it also stores glucose as
glycogen and converts it back to glucose when required.
• It converts harmful ammonia (from breakdown of amino acids) into less toxic urea, breaks toxic substances such as
alcohol, and breaks down worn-out RBCs.

Q11. What is the role of large intestine in digestion?

• The large intestine has three parts — caecum, colon and rectum — and absorbs more water from the undigested
material.
• This solidifies the undigested material into faeces, which is temporarily stored in the rectum and expelled through the
anus during egestion.

Q12. What are the causes and symptoms of ulcers?

• Causes: infection due to Helicobacter pylori bacteria, long-term use of NSAIDs, excessive alcohol consumption,
smoking and stress.
• Symptoms: burning stomach pain, rush of saliva after regurgitation, loss of appetite, weight loss and blood vomiting
(in severe cases).

Q13. What are the causes and symptoms of diarrhoea?

• Causes: bacterial, viral or parasitic infections, food allergies, stress and certain medications (e.g., antibiotics).
• Symptoms: abdominal cramps or pain, bloating, and dehydration (thirst, dry mouth, dark urine).

Q14. What are the causes and symptoms of constipation?

• Causes: lack of fibre in diet, dehydration, lack of physical activity, certain medicines (painkillers, iron supplements)
and other diseases (e.g., diabetes).
• Symptoms: infrequent or difficult bowel movements (less than 3 times a week), hard and dry stools, and abdominal
discomfort or bloating.
LONG QUESTIONS (Detailed Answers)
Q1. Explain the role of oral cavity in the digestive system.
Mechanical Digestion
• The oral cavity contains taste buds on the tongue's surface for the taste of food.
• Mechanical digestion begins here — the teeth cut and grind food into smaller pieces while the tongue keeps the food
between the teeth.
Chemical Digestion
• Three pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva, a mixture of water, mucus and the enzyme salivary amylase.
• Water and mucus moisten the food pieces, and salivary amylase breaks down the starch present in food into maltose
— this is only partial chemical digestion.
Swallowing
• After mechanical and partial chemical digestion, the food mass is called bolus.
• The tongue pushes the bolus to the back of the oral cavity into the pharynx; the palate moves upward to close the
opening of the nasal cavity during this process.

Figure 1.1: Oral cavity and steps in swallowing

Q2. Explain the structure and functions of stomach.

Location and Structure
• The J-shaped stomach is located in the upper left side of the abdominal cavity, below the diaphragm.
• The part after the oesophagus is the cardiac end; the part before the small intestine is the pyloric end.
• Cardiac sphincter lies at the junction of oesophagus and stomach and prevents backflow of food into the oesophagus;
pyloric sphincter lies between stomach and small intestine and controls the flow of chyme.
Mechanical Digestion
• The walls of the stomach are made of thick smooth muscles which contract rigorously when food arrives, churning the
food into smaller particles.
• Heat produced during churning helps to melt the lipids.
Chemical Digestion
• Gastric glands in the inner walls secrete gastric juice, containing hydrochloric acid (HCl), the inactive enzyme
pepsinogen, and mucus.
• HCl converts pepsinogen into active pepsin, which breaks large proteins into shorter chains called peptides; HCl also
kills pathogenic bacteria.
 • Mucus forms a protective layer on the stomach wall that neutralizes HCl locally, so the wall is protected from being
digested.
Formation of Chyme
• Food stays in the stomach for 3–4 hours and becomes a soup-like mixture called chyme.
• The pyloric sphincter opens repeatedly to release about 5 to 15 mL of chyme into the small intestine at a time.

Figure 1.3: Structure of stomach

Q3. Describe the absorption of food in the small intestine.

Digestion in Duodenum
• Bile from the liver enters the duodenum through the common bile duct; it contains salts that break large fats into small
droplets (emulsification), forming a milky fluid.
• Pancreatic juice enters through the pancreatic duct, containing trypsin (digests proteins), pancreatic amylase
(digests carbohydrates) and lipase (digests lipids); it also has sodium bicarbonate to neutralize the acidity of chyme.
• Glands in the walls of the small intestine also secrete enzymes for the complete digestion of all types of food.
Structure for Absorption
• The inner walls of the small intestine are highly folded, and these folds have millions of finger-like projections called
villi, which give a large surface area for absorption.
• The wall of a villus is a single layer of cells; inside it are blood capillaries and a lymph vessel called the lacteal.
Path of Absorbed Nutrients
• Food molecules are absorbed through diffusion and active transport. Glycerol and fatty acids enter the lacteals, which
carry them to the main lymph vessels that empty into the blood vessels near the heart.
• Amino acids and simple sugars enter the blood capillaries of villi; these capillaries join to form the hepatic portal
vein, which carries them to the liver, and from the liver they go to the heart and then to all parts of the body.

Figure 1.5: Small intestine and villi

Q4. Justify the importance of liver and pancreas in digestion.

 Role of Liver
• Liver is a large organ (about 1.5 kg in an adult) located to the right of the stomach; it secretes bile, which is stored in
the gall bladder and carried to the duodenum through the common bile duct.
• Bile has no enzymes, but its salts break fats into small droplets and keep the droplets separate, helping enzymes attack
the lipids (emulsification).
Other Functions of Liver
• Stores glucose as glycogen and breaks it back to glucose when required; stores fat-soluble vitamins; prepares vitamin
A from carotene.
• Breaks amino acids (producing harmful ammonia) and converts ammonia into less toxic urea for excretion through
urine; breaks toxic substances (e.g., alcohol); breaks down worn-out RBCs; produces heat in cold temperatures by
speeding up metabolism.
Role of Pancreas
• Pancreatic juice enters the duodenum through the pancreatic duct (which joins the common bile duct) and contains
trypsin, pancreatic amylase and lipase, which digest proteins, carbohydrates and lipids respectively.
• It also contains sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the acidity of chyme so the intestinal enzymes can work
effectively.

Figure 1.6: Liver and associated organs

Q5. Describe the disorders of the digestive system: diarrhoea, constipation and ulcers.
Diarrhoea
• Characterized by frequent, loose or watery stools; can lead to dehydration, especially in children and the elderly.
• Signs/Symptoms: abdominal cramps, bloating, dehydration. Causes: infections, food allergies, stress, certain
medications.
• Treatment: plenty of fluids, ORS, soft diet, anti-diarrheal medication. Prevention: regular hand washing, avoiding
contaminated food/water.
Constipation
• A condition in which faeces are not eliminated from the body at regular intervals.
 • Signs/Symptoms: infrequent/difficult bowel movements, hard and dry stools. Causes: lack of fibre, dehydration, lack
of exercise, certain medicines.
• Treatment: increasing fibre intake, drinking plenty of water, regular exercise. Prevention: high-fibre diet, plenty of
fluids.
Ulcers
• Peptic ulcers are sores that develop in the walls of the alimentary canal — in the stomach (gastric ulcer), duodenum
(duodenal ulcer), or oesophagus (oesophageal ulcer).
• Signs/Symptoms: burning stomach pain, rush of saliva after regurgitation, loss of appetite, weight loss, blood
vomiting (severe cases).
• Causes: Helicobacter pylori infection, long-term NSAID use, excessive alcohol, smoking, stress. Treatment:
antibiotics, antacids, proton pump inhibitors. Prevention: avoid excessive painkillers, avoid spicy food, balanced diet.

IMPORTANT TABLE — ACTION OF ENZYMES IN ALIMENTARY CANAL

This table is frequently asked as a short question or to be completed/matched — learn region-wise.
Region Enzyme Substrate Product
Oral Cavity Salivary Amylase Starch Maltose
Stomach Pepsin Proteins Peptides
Small Intestine Pancreatic Amylase Starch Maltose
Small Intestine Trypsin Proteins Peptides
Small Intestine Chymotrypsin Proteins Peptides
Small Intestine Peptidase Peptides Amino acids and peptides
Small Intestine Lipase Fats Fatty acids, glycerol
Small Intestine Nucleases Nucleic acids Nucleotides
Small Intestine Maltase Maltose Glucose
Small Intestine Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and Fructose
Small Intestine Lactase Lactose Glucose and Galactose
Small Intestine Dipeptidases Dipeptides Amino acids

EXERCISE MCQs (from textbook)

1. The three portions of the small intestine, in the correct order, are;
a) Duodenum, jejunum, ileum b) Ileum, duodenum, jejunum c) Colon, caecum, rectum d) Caecum, colon, rectum

2. The wavelike movement of muscles that pushes food through the digestive system is called;
a) Chemical digestion b) Mechanical digestion c) Peristalsis d) Absorption

3. The part of the digestive system where no chemical digestion takes place is;
a) Oral cavity b) Oesophagus c) Stomach d) Duodenum

4. Which group of enzymes breaks up starches?

a) Proteases b) Lipases c) Amylases d) Pepsin

5. The pancreas produces digestive enzymes and releases them into;

a) Colon b) Gall bladder c) Liver d) Duodenum

6. In stomach, pepsinogen is converted into pepsin by the action of;

a) Bile salts b) Hormones c) HCl d) Bicarbonate
7. In which part are the carbohydrates, lipids and proteins digested?
a) Oral cavity b) Stomach c) Small intestine d) Large intestine

8. The enzyme trypsin is found in;

a) Pancreatic juice b) Bile c) Gastric juice d) Saliva

9. The common bile duct carries bile from gall bladder to;
a) Stomach b) Duodenum c) Colon d) Pancreas

10. Why the small intestine has many folds and contains villi and microvilli?
a) To slow down the passage of food. b) To promote food absorption. c) To prevent the backflow of chyme. d) To
produce enzymes.

Answer Key
1-a | 2-c | 3-b | 4-c | 5-d | 6-c | 7-c | 8-a | 9-b | 10-b