Reproduction

Reproduction is a characteristic of all living organisms. It is the process that makes more of
the same kind of organism. Reproduction is essential in all species to ensure that the species
does not extinct. There are two types of reproduction, Asexual and sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction:
Asexual means not sexual. This means that this kind of reproduction does not involve sex.
Asexual reproduction is the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent. It
is simply a single organism growing a new organism from itself.

Asexual Reproduction in Bacteria:

Bacteria are tiny single-celled organisms. They reproduce by a

process called binary fission. In binary fission, one bacterium
grows and exact copy of its DNA coil which carries its genetic
information. Then the bacterium completely divides witch one
DNA coil in the parent and one in the daughter bacterium.
Each bacterium can undergo binary fission once every 20
minutes making them able to reproduce massive numbers from
one parent in very little time.

Asexual Reproduction in Fungi:

Earlier, you’ve studied that fungi are multi-cellular organisms

that grow long threads called hyphae on pieces of food. There
are two types of hyphae, reproductive and feeding hyphae.
Reproductive hyphae grow vertically above the food material.
At the top of the hyphae, there is a spherical bag in which
many spores are grown. This bag is called sporangium. Spores
being produced in the sporangium are reproductive structures
that can grow into another fungus. At some point, the
sporangium will burst open dispersing the spores into the air.
If a spore falls on an area of favorable conditions (food – water
– air) it will germinate and grow into a new identical fungus.

Asexual Reproduction in Potato Plants:

A potato plant starts as a lateral bud (seed) under the soil. In favorable conditions, a shoot
grows out from the bud vertically, which then becomes the stem of the plant above the soil.
Roots also grow out of the bud downwards into the soil. The bud is now a plant. The stem
then grows a part of it under the soil, which is called underground stem. Swellings start to
grow from the underground stem; these swellings are called tubers which are the new
potatoes. Glucose formed by photosynthesis in the leaves of the above ground stem is
converted into sucrose and transported down the stem to the tubers to be stored there as
starch. When the tubers are fully grown the mother plant dies and the new lateral buds form
on the tubers. These buds then grow into new potato plants identical to the mother plant.
Sexual Reproduction:

Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of haploid nuclei to form a diploid
zygote and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants:

In a plant, the organs which are responsible for sexual reproduction are the flowers. The
diagram below shows a typical flower.

Sex cells are called gametes. The male gametes are produced inside the anther. And the
female gametes are produced inside the ovules. Some flowers can produce both male and
female gametes. They are called hermaphrodite. Male gametes are inside pollen grains in the
anthers.
Methods of Pollination:
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the male part of a flower to the female part of
a flower. There are two methods of pollination, insect pollination and wind pollination. Some
flowers pollinate by insects while others pollinate by wind.

Insect pollinating flowers have special attractive features like brightly coloured petals,
attractive scents and sugary nectar. These features’ aim is to attract insects like bees to come
and collect their nectar. While an insect is collecting the nectar, its body will touch the
anthers. The pollen grains of insect pollinating flowers have hooks and spikes all over them
in order to stick to the bodies of the insect that touch it. When this happens, the pollen grain
sticks to the body of the insect. When the insect moves on to another flower to collect its
nectar, the pollen grain falls off the insect onto the stigma of the flower, thus insect
pollination took place.

Wind pollinating flowers however look very differently to insect pollinating ones. This is
because they do not need attractive features such as bright colours and scents and nectar to
attract insects. Instead, their bracts are dull coloured with their anthers and stigmas hanging
outside the bracts to be exposed to the wind. When wind is strong enough, it will blow the
pollen grains off the anther and carry it along. At some point the wind will get weaker and the
pollen grain will land, if it lands on the stigma of a flower of the same species then the
pollination was successful. The surface of pollen grains of wind pollinated plants is smooth
because it does not need spikes to catch on insects.

Self Pollination and Cross Pollination:

Self and cross pollinations are the two types of pollination.

Self pollination: The transfer of a pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower or the stigma of a flower of the same plant.

Cross Pollination: The transfer of a pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a flower of
another plant of the same species.

Self pollination is considered sexual reproduction because it involves the fusion of two
gametes together even though they might come from the same flower or plant.

Fertilization:

If a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower of the same species, fertilization takes place.
This starts by the stigma secreting chemicals that start what’s called a pollen tube. A pollen
tube is the pathway in which the pollen moves downwards to reach the ovule. If a pollen
grain falls on the stigma of a flower of a different species, the stigma will not secrete these
chemicals and fertilization fails. At the tip of the pollen tube, enzymes are secreted that digest
the tissue of the style digging the pollen tube further down till it opens on the other end in the
ovule. The male gamete enters the pollen tube and starts its journey downwards to the ovule.

When the male gamete reaches the ovary, it enters the ovule through a whole in its outer
shell. The male gamete, which is a haploid nucleus starts fusing with the ovule producing a
diploid zygote, then develops into an embryo plant.

Seeds and Fruits:

During the early stages of fertilization, some parts of the fruit become useless, they die and
fall off. These parts include the sepals, the petals and the stamens.

The fertilized ovule becomes a seed. Inside the seed is the zygote which develops into an
embryo plant. An embryo plant has shoot called plumule and a root called radicle. The plant
makes food for the seed and brings it to the seed where it is stored in a structure called
cotyledon inside the seed. The outside layer of the ovule becomes thicker and harder and is
now called the testa. In the seed there is a hole called the micropyle, this is the whole through
which the male gamete entered the ovule. When the seed is fully grown, it becomes dormant.
That means it loses its water and metabolic reactions inside it stop. These reactions are
reactivated when the seed is planted in favorable conditions including water and air; this is
when the seed grows into a new plant. This enables the seed to survive hostile conditions
until it is put in somewhere where it can grow into a plant.

The ovary of a flower contains many ovules. The ones that are fertilized turn into seeds and
the ovary its self turns into a fruit in which the seeds are. The function of the fruit is to protect
the seeds and to disperse them from the parent plant to colonize new area.

Seed Dispersal:

Seed dispersal is the scattering of the seeds all over the place to
colonize he area. It always the plants to grow in new places and
contribute to variation of species. A plant can use any of two methods
of seed dispersal. These methods are wind dispersal and animal
dispersal.

Wind dispersal depends on the fruit having wind or parachute like

structure that allows it to float in air to be carried by wind to distant
areas in order to spread the species.

The photo on the left is of a dandelion plant. Its fruit grows feathery
threads that make it fly over long distances before landing on the soil.

The photo on the left is of a sycamore plant. Its fruit grows two wings like structures that
make it spin and fly to distant areas before landing in the soil thus spreading the species.

Other plants rely on animal dispersal. In this method the fruit has hooks all over it which
catch in the fur of animals. The animals move from place to place taking the fruit with it until
at some point it falls somewhere away from the parent tree. An example of this type of plants
is the burdock plant.

Seed Germination:

A seed remains dormant until it is put in suitable conditions to start growing. These are:

 Water
 Air (oxygen)
 Suitable temperature
 Some need Sunlight
If the seed is put in an area of these conditions it will start germinating. Germinating includes
the following steps:

1. The water activates enzymes stored in the seed,

2. Enzymes start to digest the starch stored in the seed into sugars,
3. The sugars produced taken to the embryo and is used as an energy source for growth,
4. The radicle (root) grows first, fixing the seedling into the soil where it can absorb
more water,
5. The seed is now called a seedling,
6. Then the shoot grows vertically,
7. Once the shoot grows the first green leaf the seedling becomes fully independent
(before that it was depending on its storage materials),
8. The plant is now able to photosynthesis and make its own food.

Sexual Reproduction in Humans:

In humans, the female sex cell (gamete) is called an egg or ova (Plural: Ovum). The male sex
cell in humans is called a sperm. Sexual reproduction in humans starts by a sexual intercourse
followed by the fusion of the two gametes together forming a zygote (Fertilization).

The Female Reproductive System:

The female reproductive system is located under the stomach. It consists of the following
parts:

 The Ovaries: There are two ovaries. One on each side. They contain follicles where
eggs are produced,
 Oviducts (Fallopian Tube): They are two tubes, one on each side connected to an
ovary. They are where fertilization occurs and they provide a pathway for the eggs to
travel to the uterus by sweeping them by cilia on its walls,
 Uterus (Womb) : Where the fetus develops,
 Cervix: A muscular tissue which separates the vagina from the uterus,
  Vagina: it receives the male penis during sexual intercourse.

The Male Reproductive System:

The male reproductive system is also located under the stomach. It consists of the following
parts:

 Testes: a male human has two testicles. A testes is a male gland which produces
sperms and the male sex hormone testosterone,
 Scrotum: it is the sac which contains the testicles,
 Sperm Ducts (Vas deferens): They are two muscular tubes, each connected to a testis.
They carry the sperms from the testis to the urethra,
 Prostate Gland: It secretes a nutritive fluid to the sperms to form a mixture called
semen,
 Urethra: It is a tube inside the penis which is the pathway of semen and urine out of
the body,
 Penis: It is the male sex organ which ejaculates semen into the vagina during sexual
intercourse,
 Epididymis: coiled tubes in which sperms are stored,
 Seminal vesicle: it is another gland like the prostate gland. It also secretes nutritive
fluids for sperms to feed from and swim in forming semen.
The testicles are inside the scrotum which hangs outside the body. This is because testicles
work best at a temperature below that of the body.

Comparing Male and Female Gametes:

Eggs are much bigger than sperms. This is because it needs space to store nutrients on which
the embryo feeds on before it reaches the uterus. Eggs being very large make it wasteful to
make plenty of them; this is why a woman has one egg at a time. Sperms however are much
smaller and in larger quantities to increase the chance of successful fertilization. Sperms feed
on nutrients in the semen fluid. Eggs are unable to move by them selves, they are swept to the
uterus by cilia in the walls of the oviduct. On the other hand, sperms have long tails which
helps them swim their way to the egg. A sperm also has a large number of mitochondria to
release lots of energy to be used in swimming.

The Sexual Intercourse:

The penis of a male is full of erect tissue and blood vessels. During sexual intercourse the
blood pressure increases in the penis making it stiff and erect first to be inserted into the
woman’s vagina.

Stimulation at the end of the penis causes the muscle tissues along the sperm duct to contract
in a wavy-like motion squeezing the sperms from the epididymis to into the sperm duct. The
sperms are squeezed past the prostate gland and seminal vesicle which secrete the nutritive
fluid to the sperms forming semen.

Sperms + Nutritive Fluid = Semen

The muscles keep contracting against the sperm duct squeezing the semen out of the body
through the urethra in the penis. The ejection of semen out of the body is called ejaculation.
During one ejaculation, about 500 million sperms are secreted.

The semen is ejaculated in the vagina just below the cervix. The
sperms are now ready to begin their long, dangerous journey to the
egg. The sperms use sugars in the nutritive fluid to release energy
which is used to swim through the cervix and in the film of water
lining the uterus until they reach the egg. They swim using their
tails.*

In the woman, an egg lives for several days in one of the oviducts.
When the egg dies it is released in the uterus. Fertilization will be
successful only if the egg is still living in one of the oviducts. The
egg produces chemicals which attract the sperms to it. Many
sperms may arrive to the egg but only one can fertilize it.
The sperms gather around the egg and compete for it by secreting enzymes which can digest
the wall of the egg. Once one of them succeeds in penetrating the wall of the egg, it gets in
leaving its tail out. At the same moment this happens, the egg produces an impermeable wall
around it called fertilization membrane which prevents any more sperms entering the egg.
No the nucleus of the sperm can fuse with the nucleus of egg, this is fertilization.

Implantation and Development:

After the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse together, they become a single cell called the
zygote. Next, the zygote keeps dividing and producing more cells until a tiny ball of cells is
formed. This ball is no bigger than the original egg and is called the embryo.

Fertilization occurs in the oviduct. The development into an embryo takes place while it is
moving slowly down the oviduct to the uterus, where the embryo starts developing further.
When the embryo reaches the uterus it sinks into the soft lining of the uterus and becomes
attached to it. This is called implantation.

Pregnancy:

After implantation, the embryo starts further development. Some of the cells of the embryo
grow into projections or villi which are fixed firmly into the wall of the uterus. The uterus of
the mother also grows set of projections or villi, the two sets of projections grow closely
together to form a structure called the placenta which will be used in substance transfer
between the baby and the mother.

The embryo also starts forming a bag around the baby; this bag is called the amnion. The
majority of the cells of the embryo start dividing rapidly producing a fetus, which is the baby.

Sperm/Egg → Zygote → Embryo → Fetus

The placenta has two sets of villi, the fetus’s set which contains the fetus’s blood capillaries,
and the mother’s set which contains the mother’s blood capillaries. The blood flows from the
fetus to the fetus’s blood vessels in the placenta through umbilical arteries and veins.

The function of the placenta and the umbilical cord is to exchange

substances between the mother and fetus without mixing their
bloods together. This is because they might have different blood
groups or the mom might have a disease that could be passed to
the fetus.

The blood circulation of the fetus includes the placenta. When the
blood reaches the blood capillaries of the fetus in the placenta,
waste substances like carbon dioxide and urea diffuse from it to
the maternal (mother’s) blood. The mother then gets rid of these
waste materials. Useful substances also diffuse from the maternal
blood to the fetus’s blood. These include oxygen, amino acids,
glucose, vitamins, water, minerals, fatty acids & glycerol. These
nutrients are used in building the body of the fetus. Some useful
substances also diffuse from the maternal blood to the fetal
(fetus’s) blood like antibodies and antibiotics.

The placenta has another very important function. That is making oestrogen and progesterone
hormones which are essential to keep the uterus in good condition and stimulate milk-
producing tissues in the mother.

The fetus which is inside the amnion is surrounded by a fluid called amniotic fluid. This fluid
protects the fetus from mechanical shock so that it doesn’t get harmed if something hits the
mother’s stomach. The fetus needs no space to breath because it doesn’t, get its oxygen from
the mother and gets rid of the carbon dioxide through her too.

The Mother’s Diet:

A pregnant woman’s diet is different to that of a normal woman. This is because a pregnant
woman needs extra supplies of most nutrients because she is feeding both her self and her
baby.

Proteins should be increased in a pregnant woman’s body. The growing fetus needs plenty of
protein to build new cells. Carbohydrates should also increase since the fetus consumes them
too and because it is harder to move when the woman is pregnant. Calcium is one of the most
essential minerals for the fetus’s growth. This is because it is used in making the bones. If the
mother does not increase her intake of calcium the fetus will start absorbing it from her bones
and teeth. Iron is needed in large quantities as well. This is to produce more hemoglobin for
the mother and the fetus. Drugs should be avoided. The effects a drug has on the mother are
also had on the fetus but on a larger, more fatal scale. Drugs can cause unhealthy babies or
even early birth giving of an abnormal baby.

Giving Birth:

Nine months after fertilization, the fetus becomes ready to be given birth. Birth starts by the
muscles of uterus starting to contract. This causes some pain for the mother. When it is time
for the baby to go out, the frequency of the muscle contractions of the uterus increase and
they contract more this causes the amnion to break letting the amniotic fluid out. The mother
could help in this stage by shouting out loud since it makes the muscles of her body contract.
The muscles of the uterus keep contracting pushing the baby out. First out is the head of the
baby followed by the rest of the body slipping out. The umbilical cord which still links the
baby with the mother is now ready to be cut and tied safely.

Feeding the Young Baby:

The best food for a new born is breast milk. This is because breast milk contains all essential
nutrients for the baby like proteins, fats, sugars, vitamins and minerals in easily digestible
form. The mother’s milk also contains antibodies which are needed by the baby since their
immune system has not developed yet. Moreover, breast feeding builds a close bond between
the mother and her baby.
If the mother cannot breast feed for any reason, there is another alternative which is formula
milk powder. Formula milk powder is mixed with boiled water and fed to the babies in
bottles. Formula milk however contains nutrients in harder digestible form which is a
disadvantage. Formula milk also lacks of antibodies which are needed by the baby which
makes a bottle feeding baby in a greater risk of infection than a breast feeding baby.

Increasing Fertility:

Some couples are unable to have babies. This could be due to lack of egg production in the
woman. If this is the case, the problem could be solved by prescribing the woman hormones
called fertility drugs which contain a hormone called FSH. Those drugs make her ovulate to
make her produce healthy eggs which can be fertilized.

In other cases, the problem could be caused by a problem with the woman’s ovaries or the
man’s sperm’s activity. The solution in these cases is called Vitro fertilization. In vitro
fertilization, the woman is first given fertility drugs to make her produce a lot of eggs. These
eggs are then taken out of the woman and replaced in a sterile dish. Then, the man’s sperms
are added to the dish. After fertilization happens, one of the fertilized eggs is taken from the
dish in put back in the woman’s uterus. If this is correctly done, the zygote will develop and
the woman will get pregnant.

If there is no hope in the man’s sperm, a sperm donor is needed. This is another man who
donates his sperm to fertilize the woman’s eggs. This can be done naturally by sexual inter
course or by vitro fertilization. This method is called artificial insemination.

Methods of increasing fertility cause a fuss around the world. Some people say that the
world’s population is big enough and that couples who are unable to have children should
deal with it. Others however, think its every couple’s right to have kids. Some people also
claim that increasing fertility costs great expenses and that money could be used wisely in
other needs.

The Menstrual Cycle:

In a normal woman, one egg is released from the
ovaries per month. This is accompanied by other
changes. For example, the inner lining of the
uterus becomes ready to receive a fertilized egg.
The lining of the uterus becomes full of blood
capillaries and soft. If fertilization doesn’t take
place at that time, the egg dies, this is also
accompanied by other changes. The thick lining
of the uterus becomes unneeded and it breaks
down and gets out of the body through the vagina
with the dead egg over a period of 4-7 days. This
is called menstruation. These events are part of
what’s called the menstrual cycle which takes
place monthly in a 12-50 years old woman’s
body. The diagram on the right represents events
of the menstrual cycle.

The menstruation cycle is controlled by 4

hormones. Two of these are made by the ovaries
and they are called oestrogen and progesterone.
The other two are made by the pituitary gland and
they are called the FSH and LH hormones.

During menstruation at the beginning of the

cycle, the pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH
hormones. These hormones stimulate the ovaries
to secrete oestrogen hormone, the function of this
hormone is to rebuild the lining of the uterus
again once menstruation is finished.

Next, the pituitary gland increases the amount of FSH and LH hormones secreted, specially
the LH. The large amounts of LH hormone cause the ovary to release an egg, this is
ovulation. This is when fertilization is most likely to be successful if sexual intercourse took
place.

Then the amounts of LH, FSH and oestrogen hormones secreted drop. The place where the
egg was in the ovary gets occupied by yellow cells which produce and release progesterone
hormone. Progesterone maintains the good condition of the lining of the uterus to ensure
implantation if fertilization took place.

If the egg is not fertilized, the yellow cells in the ovary disappear and the progesterone is no
longer produced. This causes damage to the lining of the uterus which soon breaks down.
Thus menstruation takes place and the cycle starts all over again.

Birth Control:

Birth control is controlling the number of children and the time to have them. A couple may
use birth control if they are not ready to have a baby yet. There are several types and methods
of birth control. Types of birth control are natural, chemical, mechanical and surgical.
There are two methods of natural birth control. These are abstinence and rhythm method.
Abstinence method is simple avoiding sexual inter course, this way there is no chance the
woman will get pregnant.

Rhythm method is based on the woman understanding her menstrual cycle (period). The
woman must be able to sense and predict the time of ovulation when the egg is in the oviduct
waiting to be fertilized, and not have sexual intercourse at that time. The woman can know
when it is ovulation time of the cycle by sensing it signs which are change in the natural
secretions in her vagina and a slight rise in body temperature. For some women however, it is
very difficult to tell when it is ovulation time to avoid having sexual intercourse at it. This
can be due irregular periods or unclear signs of ovulation. This is why the rhythm method is
not very reliable.

The chemical type depends on the couple taking chemicals that prevent fertilization or even
ovulation. The most chemical method of birth control is the contraceptive pill. This is a pill
which contains chemicals that prevent the ovaries releasing an egg to the oviduct (ovulation);
there won’t be an egg ready for fertilization. In some cases, the pill has to be taken every
single day, if it is forgotten once there is a chance of pregnancy. The pill is very effective, but
it is not preferred by some women since it could bring other side effects such as mood
swings, weight gain or circulatory diseases like strokes. The pill has to be prescribed by a
doctor who performs a check up on the woman in advance.

The alternative chemical method of birth control is the spermicidal cream. This is a cream
that contains a substance that will kill sperms. The cream has to be placed in the woman’s
vagina before sexual intercourse so that it kills the sperms that will be ejaculated. The cream
is not entirely effective on its own since some sperms may survive, but it could be used along
with other birth control methods.

There are four mechanical methods of birth control namely; condom, femidom, diaphragm,
and IUD. The condom is the most used method of birth control. It is simply a layer of cover
worn on the penis to keep semen from entering the woman’s body. It is made of stretchy,
impermeable material that won’t allow any substance entering the woman’s body from the
man or vise versa. The condom also has a great advantage; it also prevents diseases or
bacteria and viruses passing from the man to the woman or vise versa. The condom is one of
the most reliable methods of birth control.

Femidom is a female condom that is worn by the woman instead of the man. It acts like a bag
in the vagina in which the penis is inserted and the semen is ejaculated without entering the
woman’s body.

The third mechanical method of birth control is the diaphragm. The diaphragm is a small,
circular piece of rubber which is fit over the woman’s cervix to prevent sperms from passing
through it. It is impermeable and it can be used along with spermicidal cream to ensure that
sperms will not pass through the cervix.

The last mechanical method for birth control is the intra-uterine device or IUD for short. This
is a coil of copper or plastic that is fit in the woman’s uterus to block the passage of sperms.
It is not recommended though because it has some unpleasant side effects like making the
periods heavier.
As for surgical methods, one of the couple can perform a surgery to prevent their gametes
reaching the site of fertilization. For example the woman could have an operation to cut and
seal her oviducts to ensure that the egg can’t pass down to the uterus. Or the man could have
his sperm ducts cut and sealed, in this way the sperms won’t even leave his body. This
surgery is called vasectomy and the man is considered sterile after it. These methods are
irreversible and the person who does it can never have kids again.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases:

Sexually transmitted diseases or STD’s for short are caused by viruses or bacterium passing
from one partner or another during sexual intercourse. The most spread STD’s are
gonorrhoea and HIV (also known as AIDS).

Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterium that lives and breeds in damp conditions at 37oC. It
lives in the reproductive system of the carrier person. The bacteria could be easily transferred
to the partner during sexual intercourse. Symptoms of gonorrhea in men are very clear. They
include spores on the penis, discharges and painful urination. In women however, the
symptoms are less noticeable because women’s reproductive organs are inside her body.
They include discharges which the woman won’t be able to differentiate between and the
normal vaginal discharges. If a pregnant woman catches the disease, it is likely that the baby
will catch it two during giving birth. The disease is easily cured by a course of antibiotics and
could be prevented by means of birth control and not having sexual intercourse with more
than one person.

AIDS is a disease caused by the HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). The virus lives in
most of body fluids such as blood and reproductive tract. It could be easily transmitted to the
other partner during sexual intercourse because their reproductive tracts come in contact. The
virus lives in breeds in lymphocytes (white blood cells). The virus could live for years in the
body before it starts showing symptoms of the disease. AIDS is short for Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome. The disease prevents white blood cells from killing bacteria and
viruses, so one or more weak viral or bacterial infections are enough to kill the patient. There
is no cure for AIDS till now, it is best to prevent it from spreading by not having sexual
intercourse with an infected person. AIDS could also be spread by blood, so it is best prevent
your blood mixing the blood of an infected person or share unsterilized, needles that have
been used by an infected person to inject drugs into your self.