3 Polynomials

Variable
Exponent Constant
2
5x + 2y –7
Operator
Coefficient

Polynomials
An algebraic expression of the form
p(x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + an–2xn–2 + .... + a1x1 + a0x0, where
(i) an  0.
(ii) a0, a1, a2, ...an are real numbers.
(iii) power of x is a non negative integer, is called a polynomial.
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Where an, an–1, an–2, ............. a0 are coefficients of xn, xn–1............. x0 respectively and
anxn, an–1xn–1, an–2xn–2,...a0x0 are terms of the polynomial. Here the term anxn is called the
leading term and its coefficient an is the leading coefficient.
1 3
For e.g.: p(u) = u – 3u2 + 2u – 4 is a polynomial in variable u.
2
1 3 1
u , –3u2, 2u and –4 are known as terms of polynomial and , –3 and 2 are their respective
2 2
coefficients.

 All algebraic expressions are not polynomials.

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Types of polynomials : Generally we divide the polynomials in three categories.
Types of polynomials

Based on number of Based on degree Based on number

distinct variables of terms

Polynomials classified by number of distinct variables

Number of distinct
Name Example
variables
1 Univariate x+9
2 Bivariate x+y+9
3 Trivariate x+y+z+9
Generally, a polynomial in more than one variable is called a multivariate polynomial.

 Recall that the degree of a term is the sum of the exponents of variables, and the degree of
a polynomial is the largest degree of any one term.
e.g. Polynomial = x2y3 + x7y3 + x2y2
here, degrees of term x2y3, x7y3, x2y2 are 5, 10, 4 respectively.
Degree of given polynomial = 10
Polynomials classified by degree

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Degree Name Example
N.D. Zero 0
The polynomial 0,
(non-zero)
0 1 which may be
Constant considered to have no
terms at all, is called
1 Linear x+1 zero polynomial.
2 Quadratic x2 + 1
3 Cubic x3 + 2
Usually, a polynomial of degree n, for n greater than 3, is called a polynomial of degree n, although
the phrases quartic polynomial and quintic polynomial are sometimes used for degree 4 and 5
respectively.

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Polynomials classified by number of non-zero terms
Number of
Name Example
non-zero terms
 Zero polynomial 0
1 Monomial x2
2 Binomial 2x2 + 1
3 Trinomial 3x2 + 5x + 1
If a polynomial has only one variable, then the terms are usually written either from highest
degree to lowest degree ("descending powers") or from lowest degree to highest degree
("ascending powers").
Value of a polynomial
If p(x) is a polynomial in variable x and a is any real number, then the value obtained by replacing
x by a in p(x) is called value of p(x) at x = a and is denoted by p(a).
For Example : Find the value of p(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 at x = –2
 p(–2) = (–2)3 – 6(–2)2 + 11(–2) – 6 = –8 – 24 – 22 – 6
 p(–2) = –60
Zero of a polynomial : A real number a is a zero of the polynomial p(x) if p(a) = 0.
For Example : Consider
p(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6
p(1) = (1)3 – 6(1)2 + 11(1) – 6 = 1 – 6 + 11 – 6 = 0
p(2) = (2)3 – 6(2)2 + 11(2) – 6 = 8 – 24 + 22 – 6 = 0
p(3) = (3)3 – 6(3)2 + 11(3) – 6 = 27 – 54 + 33 – 6 = 0
Thus, 1, 2 and 3 are called the zeroes of polynomial p(x).
Geometrical meaning of the zeroes of a polynomial
Geometrically the zeroes of a polynomial f(x) are the x-co-ordinates of the points where the graph
y = f(x) intersects x-axis. To understand it, we will see the geometrical representations of linear
and quadratic polynomials.
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Geometrical representation of the zero of a linear polynomial y = ax + b

y

 −b 
 a ,0  x
x'  
O
•
A

y'

The graph of y = ax + b intersects the x-axis at only one point A.

Therefore, we conclude that the linear polynomial ax + b has one and only one zero.

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Geometrical representation of the zero of a quadratic polynomial y = ax2 + bx + c
Consider the following cases
Case-I : Here, the graph cuts x-axis at two distinct points A and A'. (see figure)
y y

A A'
A A' or
x' x
x' x

y'
y'

The x-coordinates of A and A' are two zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c
Case-II : Here, the graph touches the x-axis at exactly one point (see fig). So, the two points A and
A' of Case-I coincide here to become one point A.
The x-coordinate of A is the only zero for the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c in this case.
2 y
y y = ax + bx + c

A or x' A x
x' x
y'
2
y' y = ax + bx + c

Case-III: Here, the graph is either completely above the x-axis or completely below the x-axis
(see fig.). So, it does not cut the x-axis at any point. So, the quadratic polynomial
ax2 + bx +c has no zero in this case.
2
y = ax + bx + c y
y

or x' x \\[Link]\smd_data$\PNCF\2026-27\Print Module\SET-1\NCERT\Mathematics\10th

x' x
y'
2
y' y = ax + bx + c

So, you can see geometrically that a quadratic polynomial can have either two distinct
zeroes or one zero, or no zero. This also means that a polynomial of degree 2 has at most
two zeroes.

 In general, given a polynomial p(x) of degree n, the graph of y = p(x) intersects the x-axis at
atmost n points. Therefore, a polynomial p(x) of degree n has at most n zeroes.

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The graphical representation of y = ax2 + bx + c is shown in the given figure. Does it have
zero(s)?
y

x' O x

y'

Explanation
It has no zero because there is no real x for which y gets zero or graphically there is no point of
intersection of x-axis and the curve.

Look at the graphs given below. Each is the graph of y = p(x), where p(x) is a polynomial.
For each of the graphs, find the number of zeroes of p(x).
y y y

x' O x x' O x x' O x

y' y' y'

(i) (ii) (iii)
y y y
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x' O x x' O x x' O x

y' y' y'

(iv) (v) (vi)
Explanation
(i) The number of zeroes is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at one point only.
(ii) The number of zeroes is 2 as the graph intersects the x-axis at two points.
(iii) The number of zeroes is 3 as the graph intersects the x-axis at three points.
(iv) The number of zeroes is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at one point only.
(v) The number of zeroes is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at one point only.
(vi) The number of zeroes is 4 as the graph intersects the x-axis at four points.
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Relationship between the zeroes and coefficients of a polynomial

For a linear polynomial ax + b, (a  0), we have,

b (constan t term)
zero of a linear polynomial = − = −
a (coefficient of x)

For a quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c (a  0), with  and  as it's zeroes, (x – ) and (x – ) are

the factors of ax2 + bx + c.

Therefore, ax2 + bx + c = K(x – ) (x – )

(where K is a non-zero constant to balance the equation of the coefficient of x2 i.e. a  1.)

ax2 + bx + c = K[x2 – ( + )x + ]

ax2 + bx + c = K x2 – K ( + ) x + K

comparing the coefficients of x2, x and constant terms on both the sides, we get

a = K, b = –K( + ) and c = K

This gives

b (coefficient of x)
Sum of zeroes =  +  = − = − For a cubic polynomial
a (coefficient of x2 ) ax3 + bx2 + cx + d (a  0)
with   and  as its
zeroes, we have  +  +
c (constant term) −b
Product of zeroes =  = = =
a (coefficient of x2 ) a
 +  +  = c/a
 = – d/a
Formation of quadratic polynomial:

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If α and β are the zeroes of a quadratic polynomial f(x).

then polynomial f(x) is given by

f(x) = K{x2 – ( + )x + }

or f(x) = K{x2 – (sum of the zeroes) x + product of the zeroes}

where K is a non-zero constant.

 For a given polynomial, it is not necessary that it has only real zeroes.

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Find a quadratic polynomial whose zeroes are 5 and – 2 respectively.

Solution
Let the quadratic polynomial be ax2 + bx + c,
and it's zeroes be  and 
we have,  +  = 5 + (–2) = 3 The cubic polynomial
whose zeroes are , 
 = 5(– 2) = – 10 and  is given by
We know that a quadratic polynomial f(x) = k {x3 – ( +  + )
x2 + ( +  + ) x –
when the sum and product of its zeroes are given by }

f(x) = K [x2 – (sum of zeroes) x + product of zeroes]

(where K is a non-zero constant)
so, f(x) = K{x2 – 3x – 10}

= x2 – 3x – 10 [ K = 1]

Find a quadratic polynomial for each with the given numbers as the sum and product of its
zeroes respectively:
1 1
(i) , –1 (ii) 2,
4 3
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Solution
We know that a quadratic polynomial when the sum and product of its zeroes are given by
f(x) = k {x2 – (Sum of the zeroes) x + Product of the zeroes}, where k is a non-zero constant.

 1 
(i) Required quadratic polynomial f(x) is given by f(x) = k x 2 − x − 1
 4 

= 4x2 – x – 4 [ K = 4]

 1
(ii) Required quadratic polynomial f(x) is given by f(x) = k  x 2 − 2x + 
 3

= 3x2 − 3 2x + 1 [ K = 3]

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Find the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 + 7x + 12 and verify the relation between
the zeroes and its coefficients.
Solution
We have,
f(x) = x2 + 7x + 12 = x2 + 4x + 3x + 12
 f(x) = x(x + 4) + 3 (x + 4)
 f(x) = (x + 4) (x + 3)
The zeroes of f(x) are given by f(x) = 0
 x2 + 7x + 12 = 0
 (x + 4) (x + 3) = 0
 x + 4 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
 x = – 4 or x = – 3
Thus, the zeroes of f(x) = x2 + 7x + 12 are  = –4 and  = –3
Coefficient of x 7
Now, sum of the zeroes = α + β = (–4) + (–3) = –7 and – = − = –7
Coefficient of x 2
1
Coefficient of x
 Sum of the zeroes = –
Coefficient of x2
Constant term 12
Product of the zeroes = αβ = (–4) × (–3) = 12 and = = 12
Coefficient of x2 1
Constant term
 Product of the zeroes =
Coefficient of x2

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4

Find the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial f(x) = abx2 + (b2 + ac) x + bc and verify the
relationship between the zeroes and its coefficients.
Solution
f(x) = abx2 + (b2 + ac) x + bc = abx2 + b2x + acx + bc
= bx (ax + b) + c (ax + b) = (ax + b) (bx + c)
So, the value of f(x) is zero when ax + b = 0 or bx + c = 0,
−b −c
i.e. x = or x =
a b
−b −c
Therefore, and are the zeroes of f(x).
a b

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 −b   −c  −b2 − ac
Now, sum of zeroes =   +   =
 a   b ab

−(b2 + ac) −Coefficient of x

= =
ab Coefficient of x2

 −b  −c  bc Constant term
Product of zeroes =    = =
 a  b  ab Coefficient of x
2

1. Find the zeroes of the following quadratic polynomial and verify the relation between the
zeroes and it's coefficients.
7 3
2x2 + x+
2 4
2. Find a quadratic polynomial with zeroes 5 + 2 and 5 − 2.
3. If a quadratic polynomial is factorizable into two distinct real linear factors then write the
number of zeroes of quadratic polynomial.
Some useful relations involving  and  are:
(i) 2 + 2 = ( + )2 – 2
(ii) ( – )2 = ( + )2 – 4

(iii) 2 – 2 = ( + ) ( – ) = ( + ) ( + )2 − 4

(iv) 3 + 3 = ( + )3 – 3 ( + )

(v) 3 – 3 = ( – )3 + 3 ( – )
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 (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
 (a – b)2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab
 (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3a2b + 3ab2
 (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3a2b + 3ab2

If  and  are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial f(x) = ax2 + bx + c then calculate
α 2 β2
(i) 2 + 2 (ii) +
β α

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Solution
Since  and  are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
b c
 += − and  =
a a
(i) We have,
2 + 2 = ( + )2 – 2
2
−b  2c b2 − 2ac

 2 + 2 = a  − a = a2
 
(ii) We have,
3
 b  c  b 
 −  − 3  − 
   +
2 2 3 3
( + ) − 3( + )  a 
3
 a  a 
+ = = =
    c
a
2 2 3abc − b3
 + =
  a2c

If  and  are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial p(s) = 3s2 – 6s + 4, find the value of
α β 1 1
+ + 2  +  + 3αβ
β α α β
Solution
Since  and  are the zeroes of the polynomial p(s) = 3s2 – 6s + 4.

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−( −6) 4
 += = 2 and  =
3 3
   1 1 2 + 2 + 
We have + + 2 +  + 3 = + 2  + 3
       
4
(2)2 − 2 
=
( + )2 − 2
+2
(  + )
+ 3 = 3 + 2 2 + 3 4 = 8
  4 4 3
3 3

If  and  are the zeroes of the polynomial f(x) = x2 – 3x + k such that  −  = 1, find the value
of k.

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Solution
Since  and  are the roots (zeroes) of the polynomial f(x) = x2 – 3x + k.
−( −3)
 += = 3 and  = k.
1
We have  –  = 1  ( – )2 = (1)2
 2 – 2 + 2 = 1
 (2 + 2) – 2 = 1
 {( + )2 – 2} – 2 = 1
 ( + )2 – 4 = 1
 (3)2 – 4 × k = 1
 9 – 4k = 1
 4k = 8
 k=2
Hence, the value of k is 2.

If ,  are the zeroes of the polynomial f(x) = 2x2 + 5x + k satisfying the relation
21
2 + 2 +  = , then find the value of k for this to be possible.
4
Solution
Since  and  are the zeroes of the polynomial f(x) = 2x2 + 5x + k.
−5 k
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 += and  =
2 2
21
Now, 2 + 2 +  =
4
21
 (2 + 2 + 2) –  =
4
21
 ( + )2 –  =
4
25 k 21 5 k
 − =   +  = – and  = ]
4 2 4 2 2
k
 – = –1
2
 k=2
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1 3
1. − ,−
4 2
2. x2 – 10x + 23
3. Two

1. If  and  are the two zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 – 3x + 7, find a quadratic
1 1
polynomial whose zeroes are and .
 
2. If  and  be two zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 + ax + b, evaluate
1 1 2 2
(i) + (ii) +
   
25
3. If the sum of the squares of zeroes of the polynomial 6x2 + x + k is , find the value of k.
36

a 3ab − a3
1. 7x2 – 3x + 1 2. (i) − (ii) 3. k = –2
b b

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Memory Map

Formation of polynomial by using zeroes

(i) For Quadratic Polynomial:
2
K[x – (Sum of zeroes)x + Product of zeroes]

(ii) For Cubic Polynomial:

3 2
K[x – (Sum of zeroes)x + (Sum of product of zeroes taken
two at a time)x – Product of zeroes]

Relationship between zeroes

(i) For quadratic polynomial : If ,  are the roots of
2
ax + bx + c then
c
(a)  +  =
−b
(b)  =
a a
(ii) For Cubic polynomial: If ,  and  are the roots of
3 2
ax + bx + cx + d then
−b c −d
(a)  +  +  = (b)  +  +  = (c)  =
a a a

Polynomial
is an algebraic expressions f(x) of the form
2 n
a0 + a1x + a2x + …….. + anx , Where Graphs of polynomials
• a0, a1, ….. an are real numbers and all indices (i) Linear polynomial: Graph of linear polynomial
of variable x are non-negative integers. is a straight line and has exactly one zero.
(ii) Quadratic polynomial: Graph of quadratic
• Highest power is called degree. polynomial is always a parabola and have
n
• a0, a1x, ……..anx are terms atmost two zeroes.
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(iii) Cubic polynomials: Cubic polynomials can

• a0, a1, ……..an are co-efficients. have atmost three zeroes.

Zero(es)/Roots of polynomial
x = r is a zero of a polynomial p(x) if
p(r) = 0

Types of Polynomials

On basis of terms On basis of degree

Monomial Linear
Value of Polynomial
Binomial Quadratic
The value of a polynomial f(x) at
Cubic x = a is obtained by substituting
Trinomial
x = a in the given polynomial
Bi-Quadratic

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